Azathioprine is an oral and parenteral immunosuppressive agent and thiopurine analog. It is a chemical analog of the endogenous purines adenine, guanine, and hypoxanthine. Azathioprine is metabolized to 6-mercaptopurine. As an immunosuppressant, azathioprine is commonly used in transplant patients but also is useful in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, lupus nephritis, and psoriatic arthritis. Azathioprine is also used off-label in the treatment of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
General Administration Information
For storage information, see specific product information within the How Supplied section.
Hazardous Drug Classification
-NIOSH 2016 List: Group 2
-NIOSH (Draft) 2020 List: Table 1
-Observe and exercise appropriate precautions for handling, preparation, administration, and disposal of hazardous drugs.
-INJECTABLES: Use double chemotherapy gloves and a protective gown. Prepare in a biological safety cabinet or compounding aseptic containment isolator with a closed system drug transfer device. Eye/face and respiratory protection may be needed during preparation and administration.
-ORAL TABLETS/CAPSULES/LIQUIDS: Use gloves to handle. Cutting, crushing, or otherwise manipulating tablets will increase exposure and require additional protective equipment. Eye/face and respiratory protection may be needed during preparation and administration.
Route-Specific Administration
Oral Administration
Extemporaneous Compounding-Oral
-An extemporaneous suspension may be prepared by pulverizing 20 Imuran tablets, levigating with distilled water and 5 mL of Cologel, and adding it to a 2:1 simple syrup/cherry syrup mixture to make a total volume of 20 mL. The suspension contains 50 mg/mL of azathioprine and is stable for 8 weeks when stored in the refrigerator.
-Alternatively, an azathioprine oral suspension may be prepared by pulverizing 120 azathioprine 50 mg tablets to a fine powder in a mortar and pestle. Add 40 mL of the vehicle (1:1 mixture of Ora-Sweet and Ora-Plus, 1:1 mixture of Ora-Sweet SF and Ora-Plus, or 1:4 mixture of cherry syrup concentrate and simple syrup) and mix to a uniform paste. Incrementally add more of the vehicle, mixing after each addition, to reach a total, final volume of 120 mL. The final suspension concentration is 50 mg/mL. The suspension is stable for 60 days when protected from light and stored either under refrigeration at 5 degrees C or at room temperature of 25 degrees C. In the study, clear amber plastic (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles were used to store the suspension.
Injectable Administration
-Visually inspect parenteral products for particulate matter and discoloration prior to administration whenever solution and container permit.
Intravenous Administration
Reconstitution:
-Reconstitute 100 mg by adding 10 mL of sterile water for injection to the vial to give a concentration of 10 mg/mL.
-The reconstituted solution should be clear and should be used within 24 hours.
Intravenous injection/infusion:
NOTE: Azathioprine reconstituted solution is only for intravenous administration; the pH is approximately 9.6.
-Inject appropriate dose directly into a vein or further dilute appropriate dose in 0.9% Sodium Chloride or 5% Dextrose for IV infusion.
-For IV infusion, the dose may be further diluted with sterile saline or dextrose; the final volume depends on time for the infusion, which is usually 30 to 60 minutes but may be as short as 5 minutes and as long as 8 hours for the daily dose.
Severe leukopenia, pancytopenia, macrocytic or other anemia, and thrombocytopenia can occur during azathioprine therapy; severe bone marrow suppression and bleeding may also occur. The incidence of hematologic toxicities is higher in renal transplant patients than in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Leukopenia was reported in > 50% of renal transplant patients (16% < 2500 cells/mm3) and in 28% of rheumatoid arthritis patients (5.3% < 2500 cells/mm3). Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia are dose-dependent and may occur late in the course of azathioprine therapy. Leukopenia does not correlate with therapeutic effect; the azathioprine dose should NOT be increased intentionally to lower the white blood cell count. Hematologic toxicities may be more severe in renal transplant patients whose graft is undergoing rejection. Complete blood counts including platelet counts are advised weekly during the first month, twice monthly for the second and third months of treatment, then monthly or more frequently if dosage alterations or other therapy changes are necessary. Prompt reduction in dosage or temporary withdrawal of the drug may be necessary if there is a rapid fall in or persistently low leukocyte count or if other evidence of bone marrow depression exists. Dose reduction or temporary azathioprine withdrawal may result in reversal of these toxicities. Death associated with pancytopenia has been reported in patients with absent thiopurine S-methyl transferase (TPMT) activity receiving azathioprine, especially if they receive conventional doses. Patients with intermediate TPMT activity may also be at an increased risk of severe, life-threatening myelotoxicity if receiving conventional azathioprine doses. TPMT genotyping or phenotyping can help identify patients with low or absent TPMT activity who are at increased risk for severe, life-threatening myelosuppression from azathioprine. Instruct patients to promptly report adverse symptoms including unusual bleeding or bruising.
Hepatotoxicity manifested by elevated hepatic enzymes and/or elevation of serum alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin is known to occur after azathioprine use and is primarily observed in allograft recipients. Hepatotoxicity occurs less commonly in patients treated with the drug for rheumatoid arthritis (<1%). Hepatotoxicity after transplantation most often occurs within 6 months of transplantation and is generally reversible after interruption of azathioprine. Because of the possibility of hepatic failure, hepatic function should be carefully assessed in patients receiving azathioprine. Determinations of serum alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, and aminotransferase concentrations should be performed periodically. Rarely, hepatic veno-occlusive disease (VOD) can occur 1-2 years after chronic administration of azathioprine and can be life-threatening. Hepatic VOD has been described in transplant patients and in one patient receiving azathioprine for panuveitis. Concomitant serious complications associated with this adverse effect include progressive hepatic failure, jaundice, ascites, progressive chronic liver failure with progressive portal hypertension and esophageal varices, and deterioration leading to death. Periodic measurement of serum transaminases, alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin is indicated for early detection of hepatotoxicity. If hepatic VOD is suspected, permanently withdraw azathioprine therapy.
Nausea and vomiting can occur within the first few months of therapy with azathioprine. Nausea and vomiting affected 12% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and can be reduced by administering the drug in divided doses and after meals. Acute nausea and vomiting accompanied by diarrhea, myalgia, malaise, a sudden fever, elevations in liver enzymes, and, occasionally, hypotension can indicate a toxic GI hypersensitivity reaction. Symptoms of gastrointestinal toxicity most often develop within the first several weeks of azathioprine receipt and are reversible upon drug discontinuation. The gastrointestinal hypersensitivity reaction can recur within hours after rechallenge with a single azathioprine dose. Abdominal pain with vomiting may be associated with a hypersensitivity pancreatitis. Steatorrhea has also occurred.
Less common adverse effects associated with azathioprine therapy include rash (unspecified), fever, serum sickness, alopecia, arthralgia, negative nitrogen balance, reversible interstitial pneumonitis, and Sweet's Syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis).
Azathioprine may cause a new primary malignancy; monitor for the emergence of malignancies when a patient has been treated with azathioprine. Educate patients and caregivers about the signs and symptoms of malignancies, so that they are aware of and can seek evaluation and treatment of any signs or symptoms. These may include splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, abdominal pain, persistent fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Before prescribing azathioprine, especially in adolescents and young adults, carefully weigh the risks and benefits of using azathioprine due to the potential increased risk for cancers including hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma (HSTCL), which is an aggressive cancer that is usually fatal. Healthcare professionals and patients are encouraged to report adverse events or side effects related to the use of azathioprine to the FDA's MedWatch Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program by calling 1-800-332-1088. Chronic immunosuppression with azathioprine may increase the risk of neoplasia; azathioprine is mutagenic in animals and humans and carcinogenic in animals. Patients who receive multiple immunosuppressive agents may be at risk for too much immunosuppression; maintain immunosuppressive drug therapy at the lowest effective levels. The risk of post-transplant lymphomas may be increased in patients who receive aggressive treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. The degree of immunosuppression is determined not only by the immunosuppressive regimen but also by a number of other patient factors. Among renal homograft recipients who took azathioprine, 0.5-2.8% of patients developed a neoplasia. The neoplasia risk may be elevated in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who receive azathioprine; acute myelogenous leukemia and solid tumors have been reported in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who have received azathioprine. Also, patients with rheumatoid arthritis previously treated with alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, or melphalan may have a prohibitive risk of neoplasia if treated with azathioprine. Azathioprine receipt may increase the risk of HSTCL; the FDA continues to receive reports of HSTCL, primarily in adolescents and young adults being treated for Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis with azathioprine. Most reported cases of HSTCL occurred in patients treated with a combination of medicines known to suppress the immune system, but there have been cases reported in patients receiving azathioprine alone. People with rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis and plaque psoriasis may be more likely to develop lymphoma than the general US population. Therefore, it may be difficult to measure the added risk of azathioprine.
After bone marrow depression, there is an increased risk of infection with azathioprine. There is a much higher risk of infection in patients receiving renal transplants (20%) than in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (< 1%). Fungal, viral, bacterial, and protozoal infections may be fatal and should be treated vigorously. Cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) associated with JC virus infection have been observed among immunosuppressed patients treated with azathioprine. Consider reducing the amount of immunosuppression in patients who develop infectious complications. Counsel patients to recognize and report symptoms of infection.
Chronic administration of azathioprine or corticosteroids can result in muscle wasting and/or prolonged negative nitrogen balance. If these effects become evident, dosages of the drug should be reduced.
Use azathioprine cautiously in patients with thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency (TPMT deficiency) or nucleotide diphosphatase deficiency (NUDT15 deficiency), as patients with reduced TPMT or NUDT15 activity have an excessive accumulation of cellular concentrations of active 6-thioguanine nucleotides (6-TGNs) and are at an increased risk for severe myelosuppression with usual doses of azathioprine. Cytotoxicity of azathioprine is, in part, a result of the incorporation of 6-TGNs into DNA. TPMT activity has an inverse correlation with 6-TGN levels in erythrocytes and probably other hematopoietic tissues, as these cells have little xanthine oxidase activity (another 6-TGN inactivation pathway). Death related to pancytopenia in a patient without TPMT activity receiving azathioprine has been reported. Consider genotyping or phenotyping for TPMT deficiency and genotyping for NUDT15 deficiency in patients that develop severe myelosuppression; this genetic testing should not replace complete blood count (CBC) monitoring during azathioprine therapy. CBCs including platelet counts are advised weekly during the first month, twice monthly for the second and third months of treatment, then monthly or more frequently if dosage alterations or other therapy changes are necessary. Early drug discontinuation in patients with abnormal CBC results that do not respond to dose reduction is advisable. Phenotyping and genotyping methods are commercially available. Accurate phenotyping (red blood cell TPMT activity) results are not possible in patients who have received recent blood transfusions. White patients or Black patients (European or African descent), 0.3% have a homozygous TPMT deficiency due to two loss-of-function alleles in the TPMT gene resulting in little or no TPMT activity. Heterozygous TPMT deficiency occurs in approximately 10% of these patients due to one loss-of-function allele, which results in reduced or intermediate metabolism. The most common nonfunctional alleles associated with reduced levels of TPMT activity are TPMT*2, TPMT*3A, and TPMT*3C. Less than 1% of patients of European or African ancestry have NUDT15 deficiency. East Asian patients (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese), approximately 21% have one loss-of-function allele, and 2% have two loss-of-function alleles of the NUDT15 gene. The p.R139C variant present on the NUDT15*2 and NUDT15*3 alleles is the most commonly observed variant; however other less common loss-of-function alleles have also been observed. Consider alternative therapy in patients with known homozygous TPMT or NUDT15 deficiency. Dosage reductions recommended in patients with know heterozygous TPMT or NUDT15 deficiency. Substantial dosage reductions may be required in patients with known heterozygous TMPT and NUDT15 deficiencies. Prompt reduction in dosage or temporary withdrawal of azathioprine may be necessary if there is a rapid fall in or persistently low leukocyte count or if other evidence of bone marrow depression exists. Dose reduction or temporary azathioprine withdrawal may result in reversal of these toxicities.
Severe leukopenia, pancytopenia, macrocytic anemia, and thrombocytopenia can occur during azathioprine therapy; severe bone marrow suppression and bleeding may also occur. These hematologic toxicities are dose-related. Renal transplant patients whose homograft is undergoing rejection may experience more severe toxicities. The azathioprine dose should NOT be increased to intentionally lower the white blood cell count, as leukopenia does not correlate with the therapeutic effect of azathioprine. Hematologic suppression may be delayed. Physicians using azathioprine for their patients should be very familiar with possible hematologic toxicities and closely monitor hematologic status. Complete blood counts including platelet counts are advised weekly during the first month, twice monthly for the second and third months of treatment, then monthly or more frequently if dosage alterations or other therapy changes are necessary. If there is a rapid decrease in or persistently low leukocyte count, or other evidence of bone marrow suppression, prompt dosage reduction or temporary cessation in azathioprine therapy may be needed. Instruct patients to promptly report adverse symptoms including unusual bleeding or bruising.
Intramuscular injections should not be administered to patients with platelet counts < 50,000/mm3 who are receiving azathioprine. IM injections may cause bleeding, bruising, or hematomas due to thrombocytopenia secondary to azathioprine-induced bone marrow suppression.
Because of the possibility of hepatotoxicity, hepatic function should be carefully assessed in patients receiving azathioprine, especially in patients with preexisting hepatic disease. Determinations of serum alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, and aminotransferase concentration should be performed periodically. Azathioprine may need to be discontinued if jaundice occurs. Rarely, hepatic veno-occlusive disease can occur 1-2 years after the administration of the drug and can be life-threatening. Concomitant serious complications associated with this adverse effect include progressive liver failure, jaundice, ascites, progressive chronic liver failure with progressive portal hypertension and esophageal varices, and deterioration leading to death. Because of the poor prognosis of veno-occlusive disease, it is recommended that liver biopsies be performed at the first sign of hepatic dysfunction. The drug should be promptly discontinued if veno-occlusive disease occurs. Hepatotoxicity occurs less commonly in patients treated with the drug for rheumatoid arthritis.
Azathioprine therapy requires an experienced clinician who is familiar with the mutagenic potential and risk of hematological toxicities associated with the drug. Increased susceptibility to a new primary malignancy, particularly of the skin, results from chronic immunosuppression with azathioprine. Patients with rheumatoid arthritis previously treated with alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, or melphalan may have a prohibitive risk of neoplasia if treated with azathioprine; azathioprine is contraindicated for use by such patients. Reports of malignancy include post-transplant lymphoma and hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma (HSTCL) in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inform patients about the malignancy risk, and instruct patients to limit sunlight (UV) exposure by wearing protective clothing and by using a sunscreen with a high protection factor.
Azathioprine can accumulate in patients with renal impairment, possibly causing toxicity. Azathioprine should be used cautiously in patients with any renal disease causing decreased creatinine clearance. In addition, transplanted kidneys can develop tubular necrosis and may not perform adequately immediately after surgery, which increases the chance for drug accumulation and toxicity, necessitating a dosage reduction.
Azathioprine is contraindicated for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in pregnant women. Positive evidence of human fetal risk exists based on investigational, marketing, or human studies, but the potential benefit to the mother may outweigh the potential risks to the fetus in some circumstances/diseases. Do NOT use azathioprine for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in pregnant women. If this drug is used during pregnancy, or if the patient becomes pregnant while taking this drug, the patient should be apprised of the potential hazard to the fetus. Women of childbearing potential should be advised to avoid becoming pregnant while taking azathioprine.
According to the manufacturer, azathioprine or breast-feeding should be discontinued because of the potential for tumorigenicity from azathioprine. The importance of azathioprine to the mother should determine whether to discontinue breast-feeding or discontinue azathioprine therapy. Azathioprine or its metabolites are transferred at low concentrations in breast milk. However, several small studies, including one with a median follow-up of 3.3 years, have not observed any adverse events in infants exposed to azathioprine through breast-feeding. If azathioprine is used by a lactating mother and there is concern for possible adverse effects in the infant, the following additional precautions could be taken: periodically monitor the infant's complete blood count with differential and liver function tests and/or avoiding breast-feeding for 4 to 6 hours after a dose to significantly reduce infant exposure. Consider the benefits of breast-feeding, the risk of infant drug exposure, and the risk of an untreated or inadequately treated condition. If a breast-feeding infant experiences an adverse effect related to a maternally ingested drug, health care providers are encouraged to report the adverse effect to the FDA.
Patients receiving any vaccination during immunosuppressive therapy or in the 2 weeks prior to starting therapy should be considered unimmunized and should be revaccinated at least 3 months after discontinuation of therapy. Those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy should not be exposed to others who have recently received the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). Measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccination is not contraindicated for the close contacts of immunocompromised patients, including health care professionals. Passive immunoprophylaxis with immune globulins may be indicated for immunocompromised persons instead of, or in addition to, vaccination. When exposed to a vaccine-preventable disease such as measles, severely immunocompromised children should be considered susceptible regardless of their vaccination history. Safety and efficacy of azathioprine in children have not been established.
Like all patients receiving chronic immunosuppression, azathioprine recipients are at risk for serious infection. Fungal, viral, bacterial, and protozoal infections may be fatal and should be treated aggressively. Cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) associated with JC virus infection have been observed among immunosuppressed patients treated with azathioprine. Consider a diagnosis of PML in any patient with new-onset neurological manifestations, including, but not limited to, ataxia, progressive weakness or hemiparesis, confusion, apathy, and visual, speech, or behavior changes. Consider a reduction in immunosuppression for patients who develop PML or other infectious complications. Counsel patients receiving azathioprine about the signs and symptoms of infections and avoidance techniques.
Azathioprine may cause male infertility. A reduction in sperm viability and count and temporary decline in spermatogenesis has been reported in mice that received 10 times the human dose of azathioprine. Fertile matings decreased in animals with 5 mg/kg of azathioprine.
Complete blood counts (CBCs) including platelet counts are advised weekly during the first month of treatment, twice monthly for the second and third months of treatment, then monthly; more frequent monitoring may be necessary if the dose is altered or other therapy changes occur. Prompt reduction in dosage or temporary withdrawal of the drug may be necessary if there is a rapid fall in or persistently low leukocyte count or if other evidence of bone marrow depression exists. Early drug discontinuation is advisable for patients with abnormal CBC results that do not respond to dose reduction. Consider evaluation for thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) or nucleotide diphosphatase (NUDT15) deficiency in patients with severe myelosuppression.
NOTE: Consider alternative therapies for patients who have homozygous deficiency in either TPMT or NUDT15. Dosage reduction is recommended in patients with either heterozygous TPMT or NUDT15 deficiency. Substantial dosage reduction may be required in patients with both heterozygous TPMT and NUDT15 deficiencies.
For kidney transplant rejection prophylaxis:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 3 to 5 mg/kg PO once daily beginning on the day of or 1 to 3 days prior to transplantation. Maintenance dosage is 1 to 3 mg/kg PO once daily. This dosage may vary with patient response. Do NOT increase the azathioprine dose to toxic levels because of threatened rejection. Azathioprine discontinuation may be necessary for severe hematologic or other toxicity even if rejection of the homograft may be a consequence of drug withdrawal. According to renal transplant guidelines, an antiproliferative agent such as azathioprine is to be used for initial maintenance immunosuppression with a calcineurin inhibitor such as tacrolimus plus or minus corticosteroids. Of note, mycophenolate is suggested to be the first-line antiproliferative agent.
Children* and Adolescents*: 1 to 2 mg/kg/day PO plus tacrolimus and corticosteroids led to a survival free of graft loss in 89.6% and a survival free from rejection in 68.7% of 93 patients 2 years after transplantation, According to renal transplant guidelines, an antiproliferative agent such as azathioprine is to be used for initial maintenance immunosuppression with a calcineurin inhibitor such as tacrolimus plus or minus corticosteroids. Of note, mycophenolate is suggested to be the first-line antiproliferative agent.
Intravenous dosage:
NOTE: Intravenous administration of the sodium salt is indicated only in patients unable to tolerate oral medications.
Adults: 3 to 5 mg/kg IV once daily beginning on the day of or 1 to 3 days prior to transplantation. Maintenance dosage is 1 to 3 mg/kg IV once daily. Patients may be switched to oral therapy as soon as is practical. Do NOT increase the azathioprine dose to toxic levels because of threatened rejection. Azathioprine discontinuation may be necessary for severe hematologic or other toxicity even if rejection of the homograft may be a consequence of drug withdrawal. According to renal transplant guidelines, an antiproliferative agent such as azathioprine is to be used for initial maintenance immunosuppression with a calcineurin inhibitor such as tacrolimus plus or minus corticosteroids. Of note, mycophenolate is suggested to be the first-line antiproliferative agent.
For the treatment of active rheumatoid arthritis (RA) to reduce signs and symptoms:
NOTE: Aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and/or low dose glucocorticoids may be continued during treatment with azathioprine.
NOTE: Patients with rheumatoid arthritis previously treated with alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, or melphalan may have a prohibitive risk of neoplasia if treated with azathioprine.
Oral dosage:
Adults: Initially, 1 mg/kg/day (50 to 100 mg) PO can be administered as a single dose or in divided doses. If patient response is not satisfactory within 6 to 8 weeks, dosage may be increased by 0.5 mg/kg/day at 4 week-intervals. Maximum daily dose: 2.5 mg/kg/day. An adequate trial should be a minimum of 12 weeks; patients not improved after 12 weeks can be considered refractory. Azathioprine may be continued long-term in patients with clinical response, but patients should be monitored carefully, and gradual dosage reduction should be attempted to reduce risk of toxicities. Maintenance dosage should be reduced by 0.5 mg/kg or approximately 25 mg daily every 4 weeks while other therapy is kept constant until the minimum effective dose is achieved. The optimum duration of maintenance azathioprine has not been determined. Doses of 1.1 to 3 mg/kg/day have been used in the treatment of RA and have been found equivalent to therapeutic doses of cyclophosphamide.
For the treatment of Behcet's syndrome*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 2 to 2.5 mg/kg/day PO. Azathioprine is recommended as a first-line treatment for gastrointestinal, neurological, ocular, and vascular disease manifestations. Consider azathioprine for recurrent mucocutaneous disease manifestations and recurrent and chronic articular disease manifestations.
For the treatment of Crohn's disease*:
Oral dosage:
Adults with thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) normal genotype or enzyme activity: 50 mg PO once daily, initially. Increase the dose to 2.5 mg/kg/day after 2 weeks as tolerated. Guidelines state that azathioprine may be used in treatment of active Crohn's disease. Azathioprine alone is not more effective than placebo to induce remission; however, it is effective for maintenance of remission in patients with Crohn's disease. Once remission is induced with corticosteroids, a thiopurine should be considered for use for steroid-sparing. Patients who are steroid dependent should be started on thiopurines with or without anti-TNF therapy. Azathioprine, typically at reduced doses, can also be used as adjunctive therapy for reducing immunogenicity against biologic therapy.
Adults with thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) heterozygous genotype variants or intermediate enzyme activity: 25 mg PO once daily, initially. Increase the dose to 1.25 mg/kg/day after 2 weeks as tolerated. Guidelines state that azathioprine may be used in treatment of active Crohn's disease. Azathioprine alone is not more effective than placebo to induce remission; however, it is effective for maintenance of remission in patients with Crohn's disease. Once remission is induced with corticosteroids, a thiopurine should be considered for use for steroid-sparing. Patients who are steroid dependent should be started on thiopurines with or without anti-TNF therapy. Azathioprine, typically at reduced doses, can also be used as adjunctive therapy for reducing immunogenicity against biologic therapy.
Children and Adolescents 3 to 17 years: 2 to 2.5 mg/kg/day PO is the usual initial and maximal target dose range recommended for maintenance of steroid-free remission in children at risk for poor disease outcome. Thiopurines alone are not recommended as induction therapy. Consider thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) genotyping or enzymatic activity testing prior to initiating therapy, as doses need to be adjusted based on metabolizer status.
For the treatment of ulcerative colitis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 50 mg PO once daily, initially. Increase dose to 2.5 mg/kg/day after 2 weeks if white blood cell count is 4 x 109 or more and has not decreased by more than 50% from baseline and liver function tests and amylase are not rising. Consider thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) genetic or enzyme activity testing before initiating therapy; dosage adjustments may be necessary. Guidelines recommend thiopurines for maintenance of remission for persons with moderate to severely active ulcerative colitis after steroid induction. Guidelines do not recommend thiopurine monotherapy for induction of remission.
Children and Adolescents 3 to 17 years: 2 to 2.5 mg/kg/dose PO once daily. Consider thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) genetic or enzyme activity testing before initiating therapy; dosage adjustments may be necessary. Thiopurines monotherapy is not recommended as induction therapy. Thiopurines may be somewhat more effective than 5-ASA products for maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis; however, considering their safety profile, generally reserve thiopurines for second-line therapy after 5-ASA has failed.
For the treatment of lupus nephritis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: Doses up to 2 mg/kg/day PO to reduce glucocorticoid requirement or to control clinically active class III, IV, or V disease that is moderate to severe in pregnant patients; 2 mg/kg/day PO +/- low dose daily glucocorticoids is also a recommended option for maintenance therapy of class III/IV disease for those who respond to induction therapy with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) or cyclophosphamide and for maintenance therapy of class V disease without proliferative changes and with proteinuria greater than 3 g/24 hours who respond to induction therapy with prednisone and mycophenolate. Fewer patients with active class III, IV, or V disease who had a clinical response to induction with either MMF or cyclophosphamide had treatment failure during maintenance therapy with MMF PO 2 g/day (16.4%) as compared with azathioprine 2 mg/kg/day PO recipients (32.4%) (HR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.25 to 0.77, p = 0.003). Treatment failure was defined as death, end-stage renal disease, doubling of the serum creatinine concentration, renal flare, or rescue therapy need.
For the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 2 to 3 mg/kg/day PO in 2 to 3 divided doses. Consider tapering dose to less than 2 mg/kg/day in persons in remission. Usual maintenance dose: 50 to 100 mg/day.
Infants, Children, and Adolescents: 2 to 3 mg/kg/day (Max: 150 mg/day) PO in 2 to 3 divided doses. Consider tapering dose to less than 2 mg/kg/day in persons in remission.
For the treatment of dermatomyositis* or polymyositis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 25 to 50 mg PO once daily, initially. Increase the dosage by 25 to 50 mg PO every 1 to 2 weeks up to 1.5 to 3 mg/kg/day (Max: 250 mg/day) PO in 1 or 2 divided doses.
Children and Adolescents: 1.5 to 3 mg/kg/day (Max: 250 mg/day) PO in 1 or 2 divided doses.
For the treatment of granulomatosis with polyangiitis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: Doses of 2 to 3 mg/kg PO once daily for 12 to 18 months after complete remission have been recommended.
For the treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 2 mg/kg PO once daily has been recommended.
For the treatment of myasthenia gravis* in patients who are poorly controlled with cholinesterase inhibitor therapy:
Oral dosage:
Adults: The following regimen has been recommended: initially, 50 mg PO once daily for 1 week, then increase gradually to 2 to 3 mg/kg/day PO. Base dosage on total body weight even in obese patients but do not exceed 250 mg/day.
For the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 50 to 100 mg PO once daily, initially. May increase the dose up to 150 mg/day if needed. When biochemical remission is achieved, use the lowest dose necessary to maintain remission. Guidelines recommend budesonide or prednisone in combination with azathioprine as first-line therapy in adults who present with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) who do not have cirrhosis, acute severe AIH, or acute liver failure. Add azathioprine to prednisone after 2 weeks in persons with compensated cirrhosis, and consider addition of azathioprine after cholestasis is resolved in persons with acute severe AIH. May consider immunosuppression withdrawal, if appropriate, after prolonged biochemical remission (i.e., 24 months) for persons with AIH or AIH with cirrhosis; do not withdraw immunosuppression in persons presenting with acute severe AIH.
Infants, Children, and Adolescents: 1 to 2 mg/kg/dose (Max: 50 to 100 mg/dose) PO once daily, initially. May increase the dose up to 150 mg/day if needed. When biochemical remission is achieved, use the lowest dose necessary to maintain remission. Guidelines recommend budesonide or prednisone in combination with azathioprine as first-line therapy in adults who present with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) who do not have cirrhosis, acute severe AIH, or acute liver failure. Add azathioprine to prednisone after 2 weeks in persons with compensated cirrhosis, and consider addition of azathioprine after cholestasis is resolved in persons with acute severe AIH. May consider immunosuppression withdrawal, if appropriate, after prolonged biochemical remission (i.e., 24 months) for persons with AIH or AIH with cirrhosis; do not withdraw immunosuppression in persons presenting with acute severe AIH.
For the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 2 to 3 mg/kg/day PO to a maximum dose of 150 mg/day PO. Dosing should begin at 25 to 50 mg/day PO and increase gradually, by 25-mg increments, every 7 to 14 days until the maximum dose is reached. Guidelines suggest treatment should be in combination with prednisone and continue for a minimum of 6 months. Objective responses may not be noted until the patient has received 3 months of therapy or more. Exact duration of treatment and need for long-term maintenance should be individualized based on clinical response and tolerance to therapy.
For the treatment of atopic dermatitis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 1 to 3 mg/kg/dose PO once daily. Baseline thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) concentration testing is recommended before initiation, with avoidance of use in those with very low or absent enzyme activity.
Children and Adolescents: 1 to 4 mg/kg/dose PO once daily. Usual dose: 2.5 mg/kg/dose PO once daily. Assess thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) concentrations at baseline and repeat testing if nonresponse or change in responsenon.
For the treatment of psoriasis*:
NOTE: Azathioprine should generally be reserved for psoriatic patients who have failed multiple other therapies due to the potential for severe adverse effects.
Oral dosage:
Adults: Limited data suggest doses of 1.5 to 3 mg/kg/day orally may be effective. The recommended maximum dosage in dermatologic disease 150 mg/day or less orally. The largest study of azathioprine in psoriasis included 29 patients administered doses of 100 to 300 mg/day PO. A greater than 75% improvement was reported in 13 patients and 6 patients exhibited greater than 50% improvement. In a smaller study comprised of mostly treatment-resistant patients, a dose of 2.5 mg/kg/day PO resulted in greater than 25% improvement in 5/10 patients.
For the treatment of recurrent pericarditis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 1 mg/kg/day PO once daily or divided twice daily; gradually increase dose to 2 to 3 mg/kg/day for several months.
Children and Adolescents: 2 to 2.5 mg/kg/dose PO once daily for several months.
For the treatment of sarcoidosis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: 50 to 250 mg PO once daily.
Maximum Dosage Limits:
-Adults
2.5 mg/kg/day PO for RA; 3-5 mg/kg/day PO or IV for kidney transplant rejection prophylaxis.
-Elderly
2.5 mg/kg/day PO for RA; 3-5 mg/kg/day PO or IV for kidney transplant rejection prophylaxis.
-Adolescents
Safety and efficacy have not been established. Doses of 1-2 mg/kg/day PO for kidney transplant rejection prophylaxis have been used.
-Children
Safety and efficacy have not been established. Doses of 1-2 mg/kg/day PO for kidney transplant rejection prophylaxis have been used.
Patients with Hepatic Impairment Dosing
Specific guidelines for dosage adjustments in hepatic impairment are not available; it appears that no dosage adjustments are needed. Promptly discontinue azathioprine if veno-occlusive disease occurs.
Patients with Renal Impairment Dosing
Dosage should be modified depending on clinical response and degree of renal impairment, but no quantitative recommendations are available. Relatively oliguric patients, especially those with tubular necrosis in the immediate postcadaveric transplant period, may have delayed clearance of azathioprine or its metabolites, may be particularly sensitive to azathioprine, and are usually given lower doses.
*non-FDA-approved indication
Abacavir; Lamivudine, 3TC; Zidovudine, ZDV: (Moderate) Azathioprine may interact with other drugs that are myelosuppressive, such as azathioprine. A significant toxicity of zidovudine, ZDV is myelosuppression and resulting neutropenia and anemia.
Abatacept: (Moderate) Concomitant use of immunosuppressives may potentially increase the risk of serious infection in abatacept treated patients. Advise patients taking abatacept to seek immediate medical advice if they develop signs and symptoms suggestive of infection.
Acetaminophen; Ibuprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Adalimumab: (Moderate) The safety and efficacy of adalimumab in patients with immunosuppression have not been evaluated. Patients receiving azathioprine along with adalimumab may be at a greater risk of developing an infection.
Albuterol; Budesonide: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Allopurinol: (Major) Concomitant use of allopurinol with azathioprine can result in a large increase in azathioprine activity and toxicity (e.g., bone marrow suppression, leukopenia, pancytopenia). The interaction is well-documented (i.e., multiple case reports over the course of decades) and can be potentially life-threatening. The increase in azathioprine activity is due to the ability of allopurinol to inhibit xanthine oxidase-controlled metabolism, thereby decreasing the elimination of azathioprine. When possible, this drug combination should be avoided. If avoidance of cotherapy is not possible, a reduced dosage of azathioprine (e.g., reduce to one-third to one-quarter of the original dose and close hematologic monitoring are required. Further azathioprine dosage reduction or use of an alternative therapy is recommended for patients who have low or absent thiopurine methyltransferase activity, as both the thiopurine methyltransferase and xanthine oxidase pathways are affected.
Alpha interferons: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Amlodipine; Benazepril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Amlodipine; Celecoxib: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Azelastine; Fluticasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Vaccine, BCG: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Balsalazide: (Moderate) 5-aminosalicylates (e.g., sulfasalazine, mesalamine, olsalazine) may interact with azathioprine and increase the risk of azathioprine-related toxicity. The inhibition of thiopurine methyltransferase activity, one of the enzymes responsible for azathioprine metabolism, by 5-aminosalicylates has been described via in vitro and in vivo study. Theoretically, this interaction could result in a higher risk of bone marrow suppression or other azathioprine dose-related side effects. If concurrent therapy cannot be avoided, closely monitor platelet and complete blood cell counts.
Baricitinib: (Major) Concomitant use of baricitinib with azathioprine is not recommended because of the possibility of additive immunosuppression and increased infection risk. There is insufficient experience to assess the safety and efficacy of this combination. Baricitinib may be used as monotherapy or concomitantly with methotrexate or other nonbiologic DMARDs.
Basiliximab: (Minor) Because azathioprine is an immunosuppressant with myelosuppressive actions, additive affects may be seen with other immunosuppressives.
Beclomethasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Benazepril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Benazepril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Betamethasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Budesonide: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Budesonide; Formoterol: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Budesonide; Glycopyrrolate; Formoterol: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Bupivacaine; Meloxicam: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Captopril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Captopril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Carbamazepine: (Minor) Azathioprine should be used cautiously in patients receiving carbamazepine, due to the potential for additive bone marrow/hematologic effects.
Celecoxib: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Celecoxib; Tramadol: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Certolizumab pegol: (Moderate) The safety and efficacy of certolizumab in patients with immunosuppression have not been evaluated. Patients receiving immunosuppressives along with certolizumab may be at a greater risk of developing an infection. Many of the serious infections occurred in patients on immunosuppressive therapy who received certolizumab.
Chikungunya Vaccine, Live: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Chlorpheniramine; Ibuprofen; Pseudoephedrine: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Cholera Vaccine: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the live cholera vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure to cholera bacteria after receiving the vaccine.
Ciclesonide: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Corticosteroids: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Cortisone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Cyclophosphamide: (Moderate) Monitor hepatic function if coadministration of cyclophosphamide with azathioprine is necessary as there is an increased risk of hepatotoxicity (liver necrosis).
Deflazacort: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Dengue Tetravalent Vaccine, Live: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the dengue virus vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines at least 2 weeks prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. If vaccine administration is necessary, consider revaccination following restoration of immune competence. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure after receiving the vaccine.
Dexamethasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Diclofenac: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Diclofenac; Misoprostol: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Diflunisal: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Diphenhydramine; Ibuprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Diphenhydramine; Naproxen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Enalapril, Enalaprilat: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Enalapril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Etodolac: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Febuxostat: (Contraindicated) The use of febuxostat with azathioprine is contraindicated. Febuxostat inhibits xanthine oxidase (XO) and is expected to greatly increase the concentrations of drugs metabolized substantially by this enzyme, such as azathioprine. Inhibition of XO by febuxostat may cause increased plasma concentrations of azathioprine, leading to serious toxicity. Drug interaction studies of febuxostat with azathioprine have not been conducted.
Fenoprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Fludrocortisone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Flunisolide: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Flurbiprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Fluticasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Fluticasone; Salmeterol: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Fluticasone; Umeclidinium; Vilanterol: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Fluticasone; Vilanterol: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Formoterol; Mometasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Fosinopril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Fosinopril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Golimumab: (Moderate) The safety and efficacy of golimumab in patients with immunosuppression have not been evaluated. Patients receiving immunosuppressives along with golimumab may be at a greater risk of developing an infection.
Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Moexipril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Hydrocodone; Ibuprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Hydrocortisone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Ibuprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Ibuprofen; Famotidine: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Ibuprofen; Oxycodone: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Ibuprofen; Pseudoephedrine: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Indomethacin: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Infliximab: (Moderate) Most infliximab recipients who developed serious infections were taking concomitant immunosuppressives such as methotrexate or corticosteroids. The concurrent use of infliximab and immunosuppressants may also contribute to malignancy risk. However, the use of concomitant immunosuppressives such as 6-mercaptopurine, azathioprine, or methotrexate with infliximab appeared to reduce the frequency of antibodies to infliximab. Patients with Crohn's disease receiving immunosuppressives tended to have fewer infusion-related reactions as compared to patients not receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Also, concomitant methotrexate use, for example, may increase infliximab concentrations. Patients who were antibody-positive were more likely to have higher rates of infliximab clearance and reduced efficacy than were patients who were antibody negative. For patients with inflammatory bowel disease especially adolescents and young adults, consider the possibility that there is a higher risk of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma with combination therapy versus an observed increased risk of immunogenicity and hypersensitivity reactions with infliximab monotherapy from the clinical trial data.
Interferon Alfa-2b: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Interferon Alfa-n3: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Intranasal Influenza Vaccine: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Ketoprofen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Ketorolac: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Lamivudine, 3TC; Zidovudine, ZDV: (Moderate) Azathioprine may interact with other drugs that are myelosuppressive, such as azathioprine. A significant toxicity of zidovudine, ZDV is myelosuppression and resulting neutropenia and anemia.
Leflunomide: (Major) Concomitant use of azathioprine with leflunomide may increase the risk for hepatotoxicity. Caution and close monitoring are advised if these drugs are used together.
Lisinopril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Lisinopril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Live Vaccines: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Measles Virus; Mumps Virus; Rubella Virus; Varicella Virus Vaccine, Live: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Measles/Mumps/Rubella Vaccines, MMR: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Meclofenamate Sodium: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Mefenamic Acid: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Meloxicam: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Mercaptopurine, 6-MP: (Contraindicated) Mercaptopurine, 6-MP is an active metabolite of azathioprine. Concurrent usage is, in essence, a duplication of pharmacologic therapy and may lead to overdosage. Co-therapy of azathioprine and 6-MP should be avoided to reduce the risk of a serious potential for drug-induced side effects and toxicity; case reports of severe immunosuppression and bone marrow suppression have occurred, and some of these cases have resulted in hospitalization, sepsis, and even patient mortality.
Mesalamine, 5-ASA: (Moderate) 5-aminosalicylates (e.g., sulfasalazine, mesalamine, olsalazine) may interact with azathioprine and increase the risk of azathioprine-related toxicity. The inhibition of thiopurine methyltransferase activity, one of the enzymes responsible for azathioprine metabolism, by 5-aminosalicylates has been described via in vitro and in vivo study. Theoretically, this interaction could result in a higher risk of bone marrow suppression or other azathioprine dose-related side effects. If concurrent therapy cannot be avoided, closely monitor platelet and complete blood cell counts.
Methylprednisolone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Moexipril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Mometasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Mycophenolate: (Major) Concomitant use of mycophenolate and azathioprine is not recommended, as both drugs inhibit purine metabolism. Because azathioprine is an immunosuppressant with myelosuppressive actions, additive affects may be seen with other immunosuppressant agents (e.g., mycophenolate). Also, the drug combination has not been studied clinically.
Nabumetone: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Naproxen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Naproxen; Esomeprazole: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Naproxen; Pseudoephedrine: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Natalizumab: (Major) Natalizumab for Crohn's disease should not be used in combination with immunosuppressants such as azathiorpine because of the potential for increased risk of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and other serious infections. Ordinarily, patients with mulitple sclerosis who are receiving chronic immunosuppressant therapy should not be treated with natalizumab, for similar reasons.
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Olopatadine; Mometasone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Olsalazine: (Moderate) 5-aminosalicylates (e.g., sulfasalazine, mesalamine, olsalazine) may interact with azathioprine and increase the risk of azathioprine-related toxicity. The inhibition of thiopurine methyltransferase activity, one of the enzymes responsible for azathioprine metabolism, by 5-aminosalicylates has been described via in vitro and in vivo study. Theoretically, this interaction could result in a higher risk of bone marrow suppression or other azathioprine dose-related side effects. If concurrent therapy cannot be avoided, closely monitor platelet and complete blood cell counts.
Oxaprozin: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Peginterferon Alfa-2a: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Peginterferon Alfa-2b: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Perindopril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Perindopril; Amlodipine: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Pexidartinib: (Moderate) Monitor for evidence of hepatotoxicity if pexidartinib is coadministered with azathioprine. Avoid concurrent use in patients with increased serum transaminases, total bilirubin, or direct bilirubin (more than ULN) or active liver or biliary tract disease.
Piroxicam: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Prednisolone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Prednisone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Pretomanid: (Major) Avoid coadministration of pretomanid with azathioprine, especially in patients with impaired hepatic function, due to increased risk for hepatotoxicity. Monitor for evidence of hepatotoxicity if coadministration is necessary. If new or worsening hepatic dysfunction occurs, discontinue hepatotoxic medications.
Quinapril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Quinapril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Ramipril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Ribavirin: (Major) Pancytopenia and bone marrow suppression have been reported to occur within 3 to 7 weeks after concomitant administration of peginterferon alfa-2a / ribavirin and azathioprine. Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMDH) is required for one of the metabolic pathways of azathioprine and ribavirin is known to inhibit IMDH, thereby leading to the accumulation of the azathioprine metabolite, 6-methylthioinosine monophosphate (6-MTITP). This metabolite is associated with myelotoxicity (neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and anemia). In the limited number of cases reported (n=8), myelotoxicity was reversible within 4 to 6 weeks after withdrawal of this combination of agents and did not recur upon reintroduction of either treatment alone. All drugs should be discontinued if patients experience pancytopenia and peginterferon alfa-2a / ribavirin should NOT be reintroduced with concomitant azathioprine. Patients receiving concomitant ribavirin and azathioprine should have complete blood counts, including platelet counts, monitored weekly for the first month of treatment, twice monthly for the second and third months of treatment, and monthly thereafter. After the third month of treatment, laboratory monitoring may be increased to more than monthly if dosage or other therapy changes are necessary.
Rilonacept: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressives along with rilonacept may be at a greater risk of developing an infection.
Riluzole: (Moderate) Monitor for signs and symptoms of hepatic injury during coadministration of riluzole and azathioprine. Concomitant use may increase the risk for hepatotoxicity. Discontinue riluzole if clinical signs of liver dysfunction are present.
Rituximab: (Moderate) The concomitant use of rituximab with other disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as azathioprine, may result in additive immunosuppression and an increased risk of infection. Monitor patients closely for signs or symptoms of infection.
Rituximab; Hyaluronidase: (Moderate) The concomitant use of rituximab with other disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as azathioprine, may result in additive immunosuppression and an increased risk of infection. Monitor patients closely for signs or symptoms of infection.
Ropeginterferon alfa-2b: (Moderate) Additive myelosuppressive effects may be seen when alpha interferons are given concurrently with other myelosuppressive agents, such as antineoplastic agents or immunosuppressives.
Rotavirus Vaccine: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) vaccines: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure to SARS-CoV-2 virus after receiving the vaccine.
SARS-CoV-2 Virus (COVID-19) Adenovirus Vector Vaccine: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure to SARS-CoV-2 virus after receiving the vaccine.
SARS-CoV-2 Virus (COVID-19) mRNA Vaccine: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure to SARS-CoV-2 virus after receiving the vaccine.
SARS-CoV-2 Virus (COVID-19) Recombinant Spike Protein Nanoparticle Vaccine: (Moderate) Patients receiving immunosuppressant medications may have a diminished response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus vaccine. When feasible, administer indicated vaccines prior to initiating immunosuppressant medications. Counsel patients receiving immunosuppressant medications about the possibility of a diminished vaccine response and to continue to follow precautions to avoid exposure to SARS-CoV-2 virus after receiving the vaccine.
Smallpox and Monkeypox Vaccine, Live, Nonreplicating: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Smallpox Vaccine, Vaccinia Vaccine: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Sulfamethoxazole; Trimethoprim, SMX-TMP, Cotrimoxazole: (Moderate) Azathioprine may interact with other drugs that are myelosuppressive. Drugs that may affect the production of leukocytes, including sulfamethoxazole; trimethoprim, SMX-TMP, may lead to exaggerated leukopenia, especially in patients who have received a renal transplant.
Sulfasalazine: (Moderate) 5-aminosalicylates (e.g., sulfasalazine, mesalamine, olsalazine) may interact with azathioprine and increase the risk of azathioprine-related toxicity. The inhibition of thiopurine methyltransferase activity, one of the enzymes responsible for azathioprine metabolism, by 5-aminosalicylates has been described via in vitro and in vivo study. Theoretically, this interaction could result in a higher risk of bone marrow suppression or other azathioprine dose-related side effects. If concurrent therapy cannot be avoided, closely monitor platelet and complete blood cell counts.
Sulindac: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Sumatriptan; Naproxen: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Tacrolimus: (Minor) Because azathioprine is an immunosuppressant with myelosuppressive actions, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressants. While therapy is designed to take advantage of this effect, patients may be predisposed to increased immunosuppression and myelosuppression, resulting in an increased risk of infection or other side effects. The risk is typically related to the intensity and duration of immunosuppression.
Tofacitinib: (Major) Concomitant use of tofacitinib with azathioprine is not recommended because of the possibility of additive immunosuppression and increased infection risk. There is insufficient experience to assess the safety and efficacy of this combination. Tofacitinib may be used as monotherapy or concomitantly with methotrexate or other nonbiologic DMARDs.
Tolmetin: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.
Trandolapril: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Trandolapril; Verapamil: (Major) The use of ACE inhibitors in hypertensive patients receiving azathioprine has been reported to induce anemia and severe leukopenia. This combination should be avoided where possible. When concurrent azathioprine and ACE inhibitor therapy is necessary, the patient should be monitored cautiously for potential myelosuppression.
Triamcinolone: (Minor) Because systemically administered corticosteroids exhibit immunosuppressive effects when given in high doses and/or for extended periods, additive effects may be seen with other immunosuppressives or antineoplastic agents.
Trimethoprim: (Moderate) Azathioprine may interact with other drugs that are myelosuppressive. Drugs that may affect the production of leukocytes, including sulfamethoxazole; trimethoprim, SMX-TMP, may lead to exaggerated leukopenia, especially in patients who have received a renal transplant.
Typhoid Vaccine: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Upadacitinib: (Major) Do not use upadacitinib in combination with potent immunosuppressants such as azathioprine. A risk of added immunosuppression exists when upadacitinib is coadministered with potent immunosuppressives. Combined use of multiple-dose upadacitinib with potent immunosuppressives has not been studied in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
Varicella-Zoster Virus Vaccine, Live: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Vigabatrin: (Major) Vigabatrin should not be used with other drugs like azathioprine that are associated with serious ophthalmic effects (e.g., retinopathy or glaucoma) unless the benefit of treatment clearly outweighs the risks.
Warfarin: (Moderate) Azathioprine decreases warfarin serum concentrations and the INR and thus increases warfarin dosage requirements. If azathioprine is discontinued in a patient stabilized on warfarin, an increased risk of bleeding may occur. It is prudent to monitor the INR and response to warfarin prior to azathioprine initiation, frequently following initiation of azathioprine therapy, and again on azathioprine cessation. Adjust warfarin dosage based on INR and clinical response.
Yellow Fever Vaccine, Live: (Contraindicated) Live virus vaccines should generally not be administered to an immunosuppressed patient. Live virus vaccines may induce the illness they are intended to prevent and are generally contraindicated for use during immunosuppressive treatment. The immune response of the immunocompromised patient to vaccines may be decreased, even despite alternate vaccination schedules or more frequent booster doses. If immunization is necessary, choose an alternative to live vaccination, or, consider a delay or change in the immunization schedule. Practitioners should refer to the most recent CDC guidelines regarding vaccination of patients who are receiving drugs that adversely affect the immune system.
Zidovudine, ZDV: (Moderate) Azathioprine may interact with other drugs that are myelosuppressive, such as azathioprine. A significant toxicity of zidovudine, ZDV is myelosuppression and resulting neutropenia and anemia.
Azathioprine decreases the metabolism of purines and may inhibit DNA and RNA synthesis as well. Azathioprine also may integrate into nucleic acids, resulting in chromosome breakage, nucleic acid malfunction, or the synthesis of faulty proteins. The drug may interfere with coenzyme functioning, thereby decreasing cellular metabolism, and may inhibit mitosis.
The immunosuppressive activity of azathioprine is due to its ability to inhibit the delayed hypersensitivity reaction and cellular cytotoxic activity that occur during renal allotransplantation. When used for the prevention of tissue rejection, azathioprine usually is administered in conjunction with local radiation therapy, corticosteroids, and other cytotoxic agents. The drug appears to be most effective during the early period of rejection and will not suppress secondary responses or established transplant rejections. Animal studies suggest that the drug is able to suppress the symptoms and the pathology of autoimmune disease.
Azathioprine can be given as an injection, but it is most commonly administered as oral tablets.
Azathioprine is metabolized to 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) in the liver. Both azathioprine and 6-MP are rapidly eliminated from blood; neither azathioprine nor 6-MP is detectable in urine after 8 hours. Blood azathioprine concentrations are of little predictive value for therapy since the magnitude and duration of clinical effects correlate with thiopurine nucleotide concentrations in tissues rather than with plasma drug concentrations. Activation of 6-MP to form the major metabolites, 6-thioguanine nucleotides (6-TGNs), occurs via hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase and a series of multi-enzymatic processes involving kinases. The cytotoxicity of azathioprine is partially due to the incorporation of 6-TGNs into DNA.
Inactivation of 6-MP occurs via two major pathways. The first pathway involves thiol methylation, catalyzed by thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT), to form the inactive metabolite methyl-6-MP (6-MeMP). The second pathway is oxidation catalyzed by xanthine oxidase to produce an inactive metabolite 6-thiouric acid. TPMT activity has an inverse correlation with 6-TGN levels in erythrocytes and possibly other hematopoietic tissues, as these cells have little xanthine oxidase activity. Conversion of 6-TGNs to inactive 6-TG monophosphates occurs via the nucleotide diphosphatase (NUDT15) enzyme. Presence of genetic polymorphisms impact both TPMT and NUDT15 activity; thus, patients with reduced activity that receive usual azathioprine doses experience excessive accumulation of cellular concentrations of active 6-TGNs and increased risk of severe myelosuppression. Due to the risk of toxicity, alternative therapy should be considered in patients with homozygous TPMT or NUDT15 deficiency and dose modification in patients with heterozygous TPMT and/or NUDT15 deficiency.
The metabolites, as well as a small amount of unchanged azathioprine and 6-MP, are excreted in the urine. Proportions of metabolites are different in individual patients, which presumably accounts for variable magnitude and duration of drug effects. The metabolites, as well as a small amount of unchanged azathioprine and 6-MP, are excreted in the urine.
-Route-Specific Pharmacokinetics
Oral Route
Azathioprine is well absorbed after oral administration, and both azathioprine and its major metabolite mercaptopurine distribute throughout the body and appear to cross the placenta. Azathioprine and mercaptopurine are about 30% bound to serum proteins.
-Special Populations
Renal Impairment
Although dose reduction is practiced in patients with poor renal functon, renal clearance is probably not important in predicting biological effectiveness or toxicities. Approximately 45% of azathioprine is removed during an 8-hour hemodialysis session.
Ethnic Differences
For patients of European or African descent, 0.3% have a homozygous thiopurine S-methyl transferase (TPMT) deficiency due to two loss-of-function alleles in the TPMT gene resulting in little or no TPMT activity. Heterozygous TPMT deficiency occurs in approximately 10% of these patients due to one loss-of-function allele, which results in reduced or intermediate metabolism. The most common nonfunctional alleles associated with reduced levels of TPMT activity are TPMT*2, TPMT*3A, and TPMT*3C.
Less than 1% of patients of European or African ancestry have a nucleotide diphosphatase (NUDT15) deficiency. For patients of East Asian (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese) ancestry, approximately 21% have one loss-of-function allele and 2% have two loss-of-function alleles of the NUDT15 gene. The p.R139C variant present on the NUDT15*2 and NUDT15*3 alleles is the variant most commonly observed; however other less common loss-of-function alleles have also been observed.