NABUMETONE

Nabumetone is an oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the acetic acid chemical class. Nabumetone is a nonacidic prodrug that requires conversion to an active metabolite (6-MNA) for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activity. Nabumetone is the only NSAID of the acetic acid class with a half-life long enough to support once daily administration. Other NSAIDs that can be given as a single daily dose include piroxicam (enolic acid derivative) and oxaprozin (propionic acid derivative). Because the metabolites of 6-MNA are weak inhibitors of the COX enzyme and are renally excreted, nephrotoxicity of nabumetone relative to other NSAIDs is hypothesized to be less. However, current data do not conclusively support or refute this hypothesis; more data are needed. Nabumetone appears to inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 preferentially at low doses, but the preferential inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 is diminished at higher doses. All NSAIDs including nabumetone cause an increased risk of serious gastrointestinal adverse effects including bleeding, ulceration, and perforation of the stomach or intestines and may cause an increased risk of serious cardiovascular thrombotic events, myocardial infarction, and stroke. The lowest effective nabumetone dose for the shortest possible duration is recommended, as the risk for adverse effects may increase with duration of use. Nabumetone was approved by the FDA in December 1991.

General Administration Information
For storage information, see the specific product information within the How Supplied section.

Route-Specific Administration

Oral Administration
-Nabumetone may be administered orally without regard to meals.

During clinical trials, diarrhea (14%), dyspepsia (13%), and abdominal pain (12%) were the most frequently reported gastrointestinal (GI) effects in patients receiving nabumetone. Constipation, flatulence, positive stool guaiac, and nausea were reported in 3-9% of patients. Gastritis, stomatitis, vomiting, and xerostomia occurred in 1-3%. Less than 1% of patients experienced anorexia, dysphagia, eructation, gastroenteritis, appetite stimulation, melena, duodenitis, gallstones, gingivitis, glossitis, rectal bleeding, dysgeusia, and pancreatitis. Nabumetone may cause serious gastrointestinal (GI) adverse effects including GI bleeding (< 1%), peptic ulcer (0.8%), duodenal ulcer (< 1%), and GI perforation. In general, upper GI ulcers, GI bleeding, or GI perforation occur in approximately 2-4% of patients treated with NSAIDs for 1 year. These events can occur at any time during use and without warning symptoms. Adverse events often occur in the absence of early GI manifestations. Patients with a prior history of peptic ulcer disease and/or GI bleeding who use NSAIDs have a > 10-fold increased risk for developing a GI bleed compared to patients who do not have any of these risk factors. Additionally, the risk of severe GI events is increased by the presence of the following factors: smoking, alcohol usage, concomitant usage of anticoagulants, or oral corticosteroids, older age, poor general health status, and NSAID duration of use. GI bleeding or erosive gastritis can be minor or life-threatening and may result from a combination of direct irritant action on the stomach mucosa and platelet aggregation inhibition. Older patients appear to be greater affected by GI ulceration or bleeding; most fatal GI events occur in older or debilitated patients. Occult GI bleeding occurs in many patients and is not necessarily correlated with GI distress. Patients on prolonged therapy should undergo regular blood monitoring. Patients receiving nabumetone and their health care providers should monitor for the signs and symptoms of ulceration and bleeding even in the absence of previous GI tract symptoms. Also, use the lowest effective dose of nabumetone for the shortest possible duration. Discontinue nabumetone if a serious GI adverse event is suspected. Metabolic adverse events that occurred in < 1% of patients during nabumetone treatment include weight gain, weight loss, hypokalemia, and hyperglycemia.

Rare cases of esophagitis have been reported in patients receiving NSAIDs such as nabumetone. NSAID-induced esophagitis is characterized by sudden onset odynophagia, pyrosis (heartburn), retrosternal pain, and dysphagia. Severe complications such as esophageal ulceration, esophageal stricture, bleeding, and perforation have been reported rarely. Risk factors for NSAID-induced esophageal effects include taking the medication without water and at night. Symptoms usually resolve within days to weeks after stopping the medication.

Rash (unspecified) and pruritus are the most commonly reported dermatologic adverse effects occurring in 3-9% of patients receiving nabumetone. Rash can indicate a hypersensitivity response, and patients experiencing this symptom should be carefully evaluated. Eosinophilic pneumonia, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and anaphylactoid reactions including anaphylaxis and angioedema occurred in < 1% of patients in clinical trials of nabumetone. As with other NSAIDs, anaphylactoid reactions may occur in patients without known prior exposure to nabumetone. Allergic reactions to nabumetone are more likely in patients with asthma; nabumetone is contraindicated for use in patients with aspirin-sensitive asthma or the aspirin triad because of the approximate 5% cross-sensitivity that occurs between aspirin and NSAIDs. The triad typically occurs in patients with asthma who experience rhinitis with or without nasal polyps, or who experience severe, potentially fatal, acute bronchospasm after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs. Other dermatologic reactions occur less frequently (< 1% of patients), including bullous rash, photosensitivity, acne vulgaris, alopecia, urticaria, pseudoporphyria cutanea tarda, erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. As determined by ultraviolet light photosensitivity testing, nabumetone may be associated with more reactions to sun exposure than might be expected based on skin tanning types. Two patients developed pseudoporphyria during treatment with nabumetone for an unspecified length of time (500 mg three times daily for osteoarthritis or 750 mg twice daily for chronic back pain). Both patients had skin fragility, blistering, tense bullae and/or shallow erosions predominantly on sun-exposed areas. Histological analyses were consistent with porphyria, but urine and plasma porphyrins were within normal limits. Skin lesions resolved in both patients within 1-6 months of nabumetone discontinuation. No recurrences were seen during 15-34 months of follow-up. Discontinue nabumetone at the first appearance of skin rash or any other sign of hypersensitivity.

Elevated hepatic enzymes (serum transaminases) and alkaline phosphatase occurred in < 1% of patients who took nabumetone during clinical trials. Notable elevations of ALT or AST approximately >= 3 times the upper limit of normal have been reported in approximately 1% of patients who took NSAIDs during clinical trials, and borderline elevations may occur in up to 15% of patients. Rare cases jaundice, bilirubinuria, and hepatic failure have been reported in < 1% of patients. Cases of fatal fulminant hepatitis and hepatic necrosis have been observed with NSAID therapy. Liver function tests should be monitored routinely in patients with pre-existing hepatic disease. Treatment should be discontinued if elevations in liver function tests persist or worsen or signs or symptoms of hepatic disease develop.

CNS disturbances, such as headache and dizziness, occur in 3-9% of patients receiving nabumetone. Fatigue, diaphoresis, insomnia, nervousness, and somnolence are reported less often (1-3%). Rarely (< 1% of patients), asthenia, agitation, anxiety, confusion, depression, malaise, nightmares, paresthesias, tremor, and vertigo have been reported during clinical experience with nabumetone. Overuse of nabumetone by headache-prone patients frequently produces drug-induced rebound headache accompanied by dependence on symptomatic medication, tolerance (refractoriness to prophylactic medication), and withdrawal symptoms. In this case, overuse of nabumetone has been defined as taking 3 or more doses per day more often than 5 days per week. The frequency of use may be more important than the dose. Features of a rebound headache include morning headache, end-of-dosing interval headache, or headache improvement with discontinuation of overused medication. Stopping the symptomatic medication may result in a period of increased headache and then headache improvement. Analgesic overuse may be responsible for the transformation of episodic migraine or episodic tension headache into daily headache and may perpetuate the syndrome.

Renal failure (unspecified), nephrotic syndrome, interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, hyperuricemia, albuminuria, azotemia, dysuria, hematuria, nephrolithiasis, impotence (erectile dysfunction), and vaginal bleeding have been observed in < 1% of patients during nabumetone therapy. Renal disease including renal papillary necrosis and other renal adverse effects including proteinuria, oliguria, polyuria, and cystitis have been reported with NSAID therapy. It is well known that vasodilatory renal prostaglandins and the potent vasoconstrictor angiotensin II work in concert to maintain renal blood flow. Inhibition of renal prostaglandins by NSAIDs can cause renal insufficiency manifested as hyperkalemia, hyperuricemia, or azotemia. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by NSAIDs also potentiates water reabsorption. Hyponatremia due to water intoxication has been reported with NSAID use. Monitoring of the patient's fluid status, serum creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen concentrations is recommended. Use is not recommended in patients with advanced renal disease as no information is available from controlled clinical trials to guide therapy.

Nabumetone has been shown to cause platelet dysfunction, although this effect is transient and reversible. Because inhibition of platelet aggregation appears to correlate with effective plasma concentrations of the drug, the individual half-life of each NSAID determines the duration of this effect. Hematological effects with nabumetone occur in < 1% of patients and include thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and granulocytopenia. Neutropenia, purpura, hemolytic anemia, aplastic anemia, and agranulocytosis have been reported with NSAID treatment. Decreases in hemoglobin and/or hematocrit and iron deficiency anemia may develop due to blood loss, fluid retention, or an incompletely described effect on erythropoiesis. Persistent cell count suppression needs clinical evaluation and may warrant drug discontinuation.

Altered vision (blurred vision or visual impairment) has been reported rarely (< 1%) in patients receiving nabumetone. Vision generally improves when the drug is discontinued. The mechanism for visual disturbances is unclear. Other changes in the special senses include tinnitus (3-9% of patients).

Aseptic meningitis has been reported rarely with NSAID therapy, like nabumetone. Ibuprofen has been the most common NSAID implicated in this adverse reaction; however, cases have been reported with sulindac, naproxen, tolmetin, diclofenac, ketoprofen, rofecoxib, and piroxicam. Aseptic meningitis from one NSAID does not preclude use of another NSAID; most patients can be treated with another drug without incident. However, one patient with Sjogren's syndrome experienced aseptic meningitis after receipt of naproxen, ibuprofen, and rofecoxib at different times; aseptic meningitis developed about a week after each drug exposure, and the symptoms abated roughly 2 days following each drug cessation. The occurrence of aseptic meningitis is not related to NSAID chemical class or prostaglandin inhibition. A Type III or IV immunological hypersensitivity reaction is the proposed mechanism of action. Drug-induced aseptic meningitis usually occurs shortly after drug initiation but can occur after years of drug usage. Although NSAID-induced aseptic meningitis is primarily reported in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), healthy patients and patients with other disease states such as ankylosing spondylitis, connective tissue disease, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis have developed NSAID-induced aseptic meningitis. Symptoms of aseptic meningitis include confusion, drowsiness, general feeling of illness, severe headache, nausea, nuchal rigidity, and photophobia. As aseptic meningitis is a diagnosis of exclusion, the suspected drug should be discontinued and not restarted unless a rechallenge is desired.

NSAIDs, including nabumetone, may cause an increased risk of serious cardiovascular thromboembolism, myocardial infarction, and stroke, which can be fatal. Estimates of increased relative risk range from 10-50% or more, based on the drug and dose studied. The risk may increase with increased exposure, as measured in dose or duration. Significant cardiovascular risk has been observed within days to weeks of NSAID initiation. The relative increase in cardiovascular thrombotic events over baseline appears to be similar in patients with or without cardiovascular disease or risk factors for cardiovascular disease; however, patients with known cardiovascular disease or risk factors may be at greater risk because of a higher baseline risk of events. Like other NSAIDs, nabumetone may increase fluid retention/edema (reported incidence 3-9%) and decrease renal perfusion that may exacerbate pre-existing cardiovascular complications, including hypertension and congestive heart failure. Vasculitis that was probably related to nabumetone was reported in < 1% of patients during clinical trials. Palpitations, syncope, angina, arrhythmia exacerbation, and thrombophlebitis have been reported in < 1% of patients who received nabumetone during clinical studies; however, a causal relationship is not established. Inform patients of the signs and symptoms of CV events, and advise them to seek medical help immediately if such signs or symptoms occur.

Respiratory adverse effects reported in < 1% of patients during nabumetone therapy include dyspnea, idiopathic interstitial pneumonitis, asthma, and cough.

Systemic adverse reactions reported in < 1% of patients during nabumetone therapy include fever and chills. A causal relationship is not established.

NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, may pose a reproductive risk by delaying or preventing prostaglandin-mediated rupture of ovarian follicles, which has been associated with reversible infertility. Small studies of women treated with NSAIDs demonstrated a reversible delay in ovulation. Consider withdrawal of NSAIDs in women who have difficulties conceiving or who are undergoing infertility evaluation.

Nabumetone is contraindicated in patients with salicylate hypersensitivity or NSAID hypersensitivity who have experienced asthma, urticaria, or other allergic reactions after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs. Severe, rarely fatal, anaphylactoid reactions to nabumetone have been reported in such patients. Nabumetone should not be used in patients with aspirin-sensitive asthma or the aspirin triad because of the approximate 5% cross-sensitivity that occurs between aspirin and NSAIDs. The triad typically occurs in patients with asthma who experience rhinitis with or without nasal polyps or who experience severe, potentially fatal, acute bronchospasm after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs.

Chronic use of nabumetone can result in gastritis, ulceration with or without GI perforation, and/or GI bleeding, which can occur at any time and often without preceding symptoms. Therefore, it is relatively contraindicated in patients with a history of or active GI disease including peptic ulcer disease, ulcerative colitis, or GI bleeding. Patients with a prior history of peptic ulcer disease or GI bleeding who use NSAIDs have a greater than 10-fold increased risk for developing a GI bleed compared to patients with neither of these risk factors. It is recommended not to initiate therapy with maximum doses in these patients due to the likely increased frequency of adverse reactions. Other patients at increased risk for NSAID-induced GI bleeding include those receiving concurrent myelosuppressive chemotherapy, corticosteroid therapy, or anticoagulant therapy, tobacco smoking patients, elderly patients, and patients with alcoholism. All patients receiving prolonged treatment should be routinely monitored for potential GI ulceration and bleeding (see Adverse Reactions). Consider alternative therapies to NSAIDs for high risk patients.

Nabumetone should be used cautiously in patients with preexisting hematological disease (e.g., coagulopathy or hemophilia) or thrombocytopenia due to the effect of the drug on platelet function and vascular response to bleeding. Nabumetone should also be used with caution in patients undergoing surgery when a high degree of hemostasis is required. NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients with immunosuppression or neutropenia. NSAIDs may mask the signs of infection such as fever or pain in patients with bone marrow suppression.

Anemia may be exacerbated with the use of systemic NSAIDs (such as nabumetone). This may be due to fluid retention, GI blood loss, or an incompletely described effect upon erythrogenesis. Patients who have initial hemoglobin values of 10 g/dl or less and who are to receive long-term NSAID therapy should have hemoglobin values determined periodically.

Use of nabumetone may cause increased bleeding in patients with dental disease. Patients should inform their dentist they are taking nabumetone prior to any dental work due to a potential increased risk of bleeding. Patients should be instructed on proper oral hygiene.

Intramuscular injections should be administered cautiously to patients receiving nabumetone. IM injections may cause bleeding, bruising, or hematomas due to platelet effects secondary to nabumetone therapy.

Nabumetone should be used with caution in patients with hepatic disease. Severe hepatic reactions have occurred during treatment with nabumetone, and patients with hepatic impairment are at an increased risk for developing these complications. Conversion of nabumetone to the active drug (6-MNA) and metabolism of 6-MNA to inactive metabolites requires hepatic functioning; however, specific dosage adjustment guidelines are not available. Nabumetone should be discontinued if elevated hepatic enzymes persist or worsen or if signs or symptoms of hepatic disease such as jaundice develop (see Adverse Reactions).

NSAIDs, including nabumetone, decrease prostaglandin synthesis, which can cause renal blood flow reduction in patients who utilize prostaglandins to support renal blood flow. Due to the role of prostaglandins in renal function and hemodynamics, patients with renal disease should be closely observed during therapy with nabumetone due to an increased risk for adverse reactions (e.g., increased blood pressure) during treatment. Nabumetone and its metabolites are renally excreted. Accumulation of parent drug and metabolites can occur in patients with renal impairment or renal failure, which can increase the risk of toxicity. Dosage adjustment is necessary for patients with moderate or severe renal impairment (see Dosage). No information is available from controlled clinical studies regarding the use of nabumetone in patients with advanced renal disease; nabumetone receipt is not recommended in patients with advanced renal disease. If nabumetone therapy must be initiated, close monitoring of the patient's renal function is advisable. In patients with an estimated creatinine clearance below 50 ml/min, monitoring of serum creatinine (SCr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) should be performed at baseline and within weeks of starting therapy. Further tests should be carried out as necessary; if renal dysfunction worsens, discontinuation of nabumetone therapy may be warranted. Conditions such as congestive heart failure, peripheral edema, or hypertension can be exacerbated with nabumetone. Dosage adjustment may be necessary. Meta-analyses have demonstrated that the effect of NSAIDs on blood pressure is the greatest in hypertensive individuals receiving antihypertensive medication. In addition, normotensive patients receiving antihypertensive therapy had higher increases in blood pressure than subjects with uncontrolled hypertension or normotensive subjects receiving no hypertensive therapy. Patients with renal impairment, renal failure, hepatic disease, diabetes mellitus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or congestive heart failure, rheumatoid arthritis, edema, extracellular volume depletion (i.e., hypovolemia or dehydration), sepsis; those taking diuretics or nephrotoxic drugs; and the elderly are at the highest risk for complications related to suboptimal renal perfusion. Closely monitor blood pressure during the initiation of and continuation of nabumetone receipt. Discontinuation of NSAID therapy is typically followed by recovery to the pretreatment state.

Safety and effectiveness of nabumetone in children have not been established.

Avoid nabumetone use during the third trimester of pregnancy (starting at 30 weeks of gestation) due to the risk of premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus and persistent pulmonary hypertension in the neonate. If NSAID treatment is deemed necessary between 20 to 30 weeks of pregnancy, limit use to the lowest effective dose and shortest duration possible. Consider ultrasound monitoring of amniotic fluid if NSAID treatment extends beyond 48 hours. Discontinue the NSAID if oligohydramnios occurs and follow up according to clinical practice. Use of NSAIDs around 20 weeks gestation or later in pregnancy may cause fetal renal dysfunction leading to oligohydramnios, and in some cases, neonatal renal impairment. These adverse outcomes are seen, on average, after days to weeks of treatment, although oligohydramnios has been infrequently reported as soon as 48 hours after NSAID initiation. Oligohydramnios is often, but not always, reversible with treatment discontinuation. Complications of prolonged oligohydramnios may include limb contractures and delayed lung maturation. In some postmarketing cases of impaired neonatal renal function, invasive procedures such as exchange transfusion or dialysis were required. Observational data regarding embryofetal risks of NSAID use during the first trimester is inconclusive. There are no adequate and well-controlled studies of nabumetone in pregnant women.

It is not known whether nabumetone is excreted in human milk. The principal active metabolite of nabumetone, 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid (6MNA) is excreted in the milk of lactating rats. Because many drugs are excreted in human milk and because of the potential for serious adverse reactions in breast-feeding infants from nabumetone, discontinue breast-feeding or discontinue nabumetone, taking into account the importance of the drug to the mother. Alternative analgesic and antiinflammatory drugs considered to be usually compatible with breast-feeding by previous American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam.

Nabumetone, like all NSAIDs, may exacerbate hypertension and congestive heart failure and may cause an increased risk of serious cardiovascular thromboembolism, myocardial infarction, and stroke, which can be fatal. The FDA has warned that the risk of myocardial infarction or stroke can occur as early as the first weeks of using a NSAID, and risk may increase with higher doses and longer duration of use. Data demonstrate that patients treated with NSAIDs were more likely to die in the first year following a myocardial infarction compared to those not treated with NSAIDs. NSAIDs may increase the risk of a cardiovascular thrombotic event in patients with or without underlying heart disease or risk factors for heart disease. Patients with known heart disease or risk factors appear to have a greater likelihood of an event following NSAID use, likely due to a higher baseline risk. Current evidence is insufficient to determine if the risk of an event is higher or lower for any particular NSAID compared to other NSAIDs. There is an increased risk of heart failure with NSAID use. Caution is recommended when administering nabumetone to patients with cardiac disease, cardiomyopathy, cardiac arrhythmias (e.g., tachycardia), significant coronary artery disease (including acute myocardial infarction, angina, or history of myocardial infarction), peripheral vascular disease, cerebrovascular disease (e.g., stroke, transient ischemic attack), hypertension, pre-existing renal disease, or fluid retention. Fluid retention, angina pectoris, chest pain (unspecified), pulmonary embolism, thrombophlebitis, and peripheral edema have occurred. In addition, clinical practice guidelines state NSAIDs should not be administered to patients presenting with and hospitalized for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) due to increased risk of mortality, reinfarction, hypertension, heart failure, and myocardial rupture associated with their use. Closely monitor blood pressure during nabumetone receipt. Use the lowest effective dose for the shortest duration possible to minimize the potential risk for an adverse cardiovascular event. Inform patients to seek immediate medical attention if they experience any signs or symptoms of a cardiovascular thrombotic event.

Nabumetone is contraindicated for the treatment of perioperative pain in the setting of coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG). An increased incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke was found through analysis of data regarding the use of a COX-2 selective NSAID for the treatment of pain in the first 10 to 14 days after CABG surgery.

As with any systemic NSAID, use of nabumetone in the geriatric patient should be approached with caution. The elderly and debilitated are typically at the highest risk for developing complications related to NSAID therapy, such as GI ulceration, fluid retention, cardiovascular side effects, and reduced renal perfusion. According to the Beers Criteria, NSAIDs are considered potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) for use in geriatric patients. NSAIDs may cause new or worsening gastric and duodenal ulcers, and there is an increased risk of GI bleeding and peptic ulcer disease in those above 75 years of age, or those taking oral or parenteral corticosteroids, anticoagulants, or antiplatelet medications. The risk of ulcers, gross bleeding, or perforation is cumulative with continued use. Avoid the chronic use of systemic NSAIDs in high-risk geriatric patients, unless other alternatives are not effective and the patient can take a gastroprotective agent. Avoid use in patients with a history of gastric or duodenal ulcers unless other alternatives are not effective, and the patient can take a gastroprotective agent. The use of a gastroprotective agent, like a proton pump inhibitor or misoprostol, reduces but does not eliminate GI risks. NSAIDs may also increase blood pressure and induce kidney injury. The Beers Panel recommends avoiding NSAIDs in geriatric patients with the following conditions due to the potential for symptom exacerbation or adverse effects: symptomatic heart failure or chronic kidney disease Stage 4 or higher (CrCl less than 30 mL/minute) (acute kidney injury, further decline of renal function). Use caution in patients with asymptomatic heart failure. The federal Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) regulates medication use in residents of long-term care facilities (LTCFs); NSAIDs should be reserved for symptoms and inflammatory conditions for which lower risk analgesics (e.g., acetaminophen) have either failed or are not clinically indicated. NSAIDs may cause GI bleeding in patients with a prior history of, or with increased risk for, GI bleeding. Also, NSAIDs may cause or worsen renal failure, increase blood pressure, or exacerbate heart failure.

NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, may pose a reproductive risk by delaying or preventing prostaglandin-mediated rupture of ovarian follicles, which has been associated with reversible infertility. Small studies of women treated with NSAIDs demonstrated a reversible delay in ovulation. Consider withdrawal of NSAIDs in women who have difficulties conceiving or who are undergoing infertility evaluation.

For the acute and chronic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis:
Oral dosage:
Adults: Initially, 1000 mg PO once daily or 500 mg PO twice daily. Adjust according to patient response. The lowest effective dose of nabumetone should be sought for each patient. Maximum dose is 2000 mg/day. NOTE: Patients weighing less than 50 kg may be less likely to require dosages beyond 1000 mg/day.

For the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis*:
Oral dosage:
Adults: In one trial, 42 patients received either indomethacin 50 mg three times daily or nabumetone 1000 mg twice daily for 3 months in a double-blind manner. Both groups had subjective improvement in pain and morning stiffness over baseline. Subjective measures of spinal movements were similar between the groups.

Maximum Dosage Limits:
-Adults
2000 mg/day PO.
-Elderly
2000 mg/day PO.
-Adolescents
Safety and efficacy have not been established.
-Children
Safety and efficacy have not been established.

Patients with Hepatic Impairment Dosing
Although specific guidelines are not available, dosage reduction may be necessary in patients with hepatic dysfunction.

Patients with Renal Impairment Dosing
CrCl >= 50 ml/min: No dosage adjustment needed.
CrCl 31-49 ml/min: Initially, 750 mg PO once daily. Maximum dose is 1500 mg/day. Monitor SCr and BUN concentrations at baseline and within weeks of starting therapy. If renal dysfunction worsens, discontinuation of nabumetone may be warranted.
CrCl < 30 ml/min: Initially, 500 mg PO once daily. Maximum dose is 1000 mg/day. Monitor SCr and BUN concentrations at baseline and within weeks of starting therapy. If renal dysfunction worsens, discontinuation of nabumetone may be warranted.

*non-FDA-approved indication

Abciximab: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Acebutolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Acetaminophen; Aspirin, ASA; Caffeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Acetaminophen; Caffeine; Magnesium Salicylate; Phenyltoloxamine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Acetaminophen; Caffeine; Phenyltoloxamine; Salicylamide: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Acetohexamide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Acyclovir: (Moderate) Monitor patients for signs of worsening renal function during coadministration of acyclovir and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Coadministration may increase the risk for drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

Adefovir: (Moderate) Chronic coadministration of adefovir with nephrotoxic drugs, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs may increase the risk of developing nephrotoxicity even in patients who have normal renal function. The use of adefovir with NSAIDs may be done cautiously. As stated in the current adefovir prescribing information, 'Ibuprofen (800 mg PO three times daily), when given concomitantly with adefovir dipivoxil, increased the adefovir Cmax by 33% and AUC by 23%, as well as urinary recovery. The increase appears to be due to higher oral bioavailability, not a reduction in renal clearance of adefovir.' In an in vitro investigation, the antiviral effect of adefovir was unaltered and the renal proximal tubule accumulation of adefovir was inhibited by the presence of a NSAID. Adefovir is efficiently transported by the human renal organic anion transporter 1, and the presence of this transporter appears to mediate the accumulation of the drug in renal proximal tubules. The in vitro study suggests that the use of a NSAID with adefovir may potentially reduce the nephrotoxic potential of adefovir. Of course, NSAIDs are associated with nephrotoxicity of their own; therefore, further data on the interaction between NSAIDs and adefovir in humans are needed.

Aldesleukin, IL-2: (Major) Aldesleukin, IL-2 may cause nephrotoxicity. Concurrent administration of drugs possessing nephrotoxic effects, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents (NSAIDs), with Aldesleukin, IL-2 may increase the risk of kidney dysfunction. In addition, reduced kidney function secondary to Aldesleukin, IL-2 treatment may delay elimination of concomitant medications and increase the risk of adverse events from those drugs.

Aliskiren: (Moderate) NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of aliskiren by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of aliskiren may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking aliskiren.

Aliskiren; Amlodipine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of aliskiren by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of aliskiren may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking aliskiren.

Aliskiren; Amlodipine; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of aliskiren by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of aliskiren may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking aliskiren.

Aliskiren; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of aliskiren by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of aliskiren may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking aliskiren.

Aliskiren; Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. (Moderate) NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of aliskiren by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of aliskiren may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking aliskiren.

Alpha-blockers: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Alteplase: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Altretamine: (Major) Altretamine causes mild to moderate dose-related myelosuppression. Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of altretamine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Ambenonium Chloride: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Amikacin: (Moderate) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as amikacin.

Amiloride: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Amiloride; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Aminolevulinic Acid: (Moderate) Agents that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), could decrease the efficacy of photosensitizing agents used in photodynamic therapy. Avoidance of NSAIDs before and during photodynamic therapy may be advisable.

Aminosalicylate sodium, Aminosalicylic acid: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Amlodipine; Benazepril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Amlodipine; Celecoxib: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of celecoxib with any other NSAID due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Amlodipine; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Olmesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Amlodipine; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Amlodipine; Olmesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Amlodipine; Telmisartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Amlodipine; Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Amphotericin B cholesteryl sulfate complex (ABCD): (Moderate) Concurrent use of amphotericin B and other nephrotoxic medications, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may enhance the potential for drug-induced renal toxicity. Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy. Amphotericin B dosage reduction may be necessary if renal impairment occurs.

Amphotericin B lipid complex (ABLC): (Moderate) Concurrent use of amphotericin B and other nephrotoxic medications, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may enhance the potential for drug-induced renal toxicity. Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy. Amphotericin B dosage reduction may be necessary if renal impairment occurs.

Amphotericin B liposomal (LAmB): (Moderate) Concurrent use of amphotericin B and other nephrotoxic medications, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may enhance the potential for drug-induced renal toxicity. Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy. Amphotericin B dosage reduction may be necessary if renal impairment occurs.

Amphotericin B: (Moderate) Concurrent use of amphotericin B and other nephrotoxic medications, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may enhance the potential for drug-induced renal toxicity. Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy. Amphotericin B dosage reduction may be necessary if renal impairment occurs.

Anagrelide: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Angiotensin II receptor antagonists: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Antithrombin III: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Antithymocyte Globulin: (Moderate) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as antithymocyte globulin. Patients receiving these drugs together should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Apixaban: (Major) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Aprotinin: (Moderate) The manufacturer recommends using aprotinin cautiously in patients that are receiving drugs that can affect renal function, such as NSAIDs, as the risk of renal impairment may be increased.

Argatroban: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Arsenic Trioxide: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia. Notable interactions may occur with myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents, antithymocyte globulin and strontium-89 chloride. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Patients receiving nabumetone concurrently with antineoplastic agents should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Aspirin, ASA: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Butalbital; Caffeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Butalbital; Caffeine; Codeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Caffeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Caffeine; Dihydrocodeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Caffeine; Orphenadrine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Carisoprodol: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Carisoprodol; Codeine: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Citric Acid; Sodium Bicarbonate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Dipyridamole: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity. (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Aspirin, ASA; Omeprazole: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Oxycodone: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Aspirin, ASA; Pravastatin: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Atenolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Atenolol; Chlorthalidone: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Atropine; Benzoic Acid; Hyoscyamine; Methenamine; Methylene Blue; Phenyl Salicylate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Atropine; Edrophonium: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Azathioprine: (Moderate) NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressives as they may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.

Azelastine; Fluticasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Azilsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Azilsartan; Chlorthalidone: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Bacitracin: (Major) Avoid concurrent use of bacitracin with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Coadministration may increase the risk for drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

Beclomethasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Benazepril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Benazepril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Bendroflumethiazide; Nadolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Benzoic Acid; Hyoscyamine; Methenamine; Methylene Blue; Phenyl Salicylate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Beta-blockers: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Betamethasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Betaxolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Betrixaban: (Major) Monitor patients closely and promptly evaluate any signs or symptoms of bleeding if betrixaban and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used concomitantly. Coadministration of betrixaban and NSAIDs may increase the risk of bleeding.

Bexarotene: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Bictegravir; Emtricitabine; Tenofovir Alafenamide: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Bismuth Subsalicylate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Bismuth Subsalicylate; Metronidazole; Tetracycline: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Bisoprolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Bisoprolol; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Bisphosphonates: (Moderate) Exercise caution when administering an NSAID with a bisphosphonate. Monitor for the presence of GI complaints, including potential GI ulceration and bleeding, as well as renal function, during combined use. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are associated with esophageal and/or gastric irritation, GI ulceration. a risk of nephrotoxicity, and decreased bone mineral density. Bisphosphonates may cause GI adverse events and occasionally, renal dysfunction. Though patients receiving intravenously administered bisphosphonates have a decreased incidence of GI adverse effects as compared to those taking orally administered bisphosphonates, nephrotoxicity is possible, and GI events are rarely reported.

Bivalirudin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Bleomycin: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Brimonidine; Timolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Budesonide: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Budesonide; Formoterol: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Budesonide; Glycopyrrolate; Formoterol: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Bumetanide: (Moderate) If a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDs concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDs have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Busulfan: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of busulfan, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Calcium Phosphate, Supersaturated: (Moderate) Concomitant use of medicines with potential to alter renal perfusion or function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of acute phosphate nephropathy in patients taking sodium phosphate monobasic monohydrate; sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous.

Calcium-channel blockers: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Candesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Candesartan; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Capreomycin: (Major) Because capreomycin is primarily eliminated by the kidney, coadministration with other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may increase serum concentrations of either drug. Theoretically, the chronic coadministration of these drugs may increase the risk of developing nephrotoxicity, even in patients who have normal renal function. Monitor patients for changes in renal function if these drugs are coadministered.

Captopril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Captopril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Carmustine, BCNU: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of carmustine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding. These additive effects may not occur for at least 6 weeks after the administration of carmustine due to the delayed myelosuppressive effects of carmustine.

Carteolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Carvedilol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Cefotaxime: (Minor) Cefotaxime's product label states that cephalosporins may potentiate the adverse renal effects of nephrotoxic agents, such as aminoglycosides, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and loop diuretics. Carefully monitor renal function, especially during prolonged therapy or use of high aminoglycoside doses. The majority of reported cases involve the combination of aminoglycosides and cephalothin or cephaloridine, which are associated with dose-related nephrotoxicity as singular agents. Limited but conflicting data with other cephalosporins have been noted.

Celecoxib: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of celecoxib with any other NSAID due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Chlorambucil: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of chlorambucil, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Chlorpropamide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Chlorthalidone; Clonidine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Choline Salicylate; Magnesium Salicylate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Cholinesterase inhibitors: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Ciclesonide: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Cidofovir: (Contraindicated) The concomitant administration of cidofovir and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is contraindicated due to the potential for increased nephrotoxicity. NSAIDs should be discontinued 7 days prior to beginning cidofovir.

Cilostazol: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Citalopram: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Cladribine: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of cladribine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Clofarabine: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of clofarabine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Clonidine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Clopidogrel: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Colchicine; Probenecid: (Major) The effects of probenecid on the elimination of nabumetone has not been studied, but probenecid decreases the elimination of other NSAIDs such as naproxen, potentially increasing the effectiveness and/or toxicity. Caution should be exercised when administering probenecid with nabumetone; nabumetone and naproxen are chemically similar, and probenecid has been shown to affect the pharmacokinetics of naproxen.

Colistimethate, Colistin, Polymyxin E: (Major) The administration of colistimethate sodium may increase the risk of developing nephrotoxicity, even in patients who have normal renal function. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when used concurrently. Monitor patients for changes in renal function if these drugs are coadministered. Since colistimethate sodium is eliminated by the kidney, coadministration with other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may theoretically increase serum concentrations of either drug.

Corticosteroids: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Cortisone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Cyclosporine: (Moderate) Serum creatinine ,potassium concentrations, and cyclosporine concentrations should be closely monitored when systemic cyclosporine is given with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Renal dysfunction associated with cyclosporine may be potentiated by concurrent usage of NSAIDs. The effects of NSAIDs on the production of renal prostaglandins may cause changes in the elimination of cyclosporine. Potentiation of renal dysfunction may especially occur in a dehydrated patient. Patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of cyclosporine toxicity and infection, as NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, or swelling. Increased tear production was not seen in patients receiving ophthalmic NSAIDs or using punctual plugs concurrently with cyclosporine ophthalmic emulsion.

Cytarabine, ARA-C: (Major) The main toxic effect of cytarabine, ARA-C is bone marrow suppression with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and anemia. Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of cytarabine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding. Dipyridamole can block membrane transport of cytarabine in tumor cells, therefore decreasing its antineoplastic activity.

Dabigatran: (Major) Educate patients about the signs of increased bleeding and the need to report these signs to a healthcare provider immediately if coadministration of dabigatran and a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) is necessary. Dabigatran can cause significant and, sometimes, fatal bleeding. This risk may be increased by concurrent use of chronic NSAID therapy.

Dacarbazine, DTIC: (Major) Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia are common toxicities of dacarbazine, DTIC. Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of dacarbazine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Dactinomycin, Actinomycin D: (Major) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Dalteparin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Danaparoid: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Darunavir; Cobicistat; Emtricitabine; Tenofovir alafenamide: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Dasatinib: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic and possible platelet inhibiting effects of dasatinib, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors (including aspirin), strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding. Caution should be exercised if patients are required to take medications that inhibit platelet function or anticoagulants concomitantly with dasatinib.

Deferasirox: (Moderate) Because gastric ulceration and GI bleeding have been reported in patients taking deferasirox, use caution when coadministering with other drugs known to increase the risk of peptic ulcers or gastric hemorrhage including NSAIDs. In addition, coadministration of deferasirox with other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, including NSAIDs, may increase the acute renal failure. Monitor serum creatinine and/or creatinine clearance in patients who are receiving deferasirox and nephrotoxic drugs concomitantly

Deflazacort: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Denileukin Diftitox: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Desirudin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Desmopressin: (Major) Additive hyponatremic effects may be seen in patients treated with desmopressin and drugs associated with hyponatremia including NSAIDs. Use combination with caution, and monitor patients for signs and symptoms of hyponatremia. A woman who took both desmopressin and ibuprofen was found in a comatose state. As her serum sodium concentration was 121 mmol/L, and her plasma osmolality was low in the presence of a high-normal urine osmolality and normal sodium excretion, she was treated with fluid restriction. Her serum sodium concentration was 124 mmol/L within a day and was 135 mmol/L by the second day. The woman had previously received desmopressin without the development of clinical symptoms of hyponatremia

Desvenlafaxine: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by desvenlafaxine due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of bleeding while taking desvenlafaxine with NSAIDs.

Dexamethasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Diazoxide: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Diclofenac: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of diclofenac with any other NSAID due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Diclofenac; Misoprostol: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of diclofenac with any other NSAID due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Diflunisal: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of diflunisal with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Digoxin: (Moderate) Concomitant use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with digoxin may result in increased serum concentrations of digoxin. NSAIDs may cause a significant deterioration in renal function. A decline in glomerular filtration or tubular secretion may impair the excretion of digoxin. Monitor patients during concomitant treatment for possible digoxin toxicity and reduce digoxin dose as necessary.

Diphenhydramine; Ibuprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Diphenhydramine; Naproxen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Dipyridamole: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Docetaxel: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of docetaxel, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors (including aspirin), strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Donepezil: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Donepezil; Memantine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Doravirine; Lamivudine; Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment.

Dorzolamide; Timolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Doxazosin: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Drospirenone: (Minor) Drospirenone has antimineralocorticoid effects; the progestin may increase serum potassium. Other drugs that may have additive effects on serum potassium with drospirenone include chronic treatment with NSAIDs, and monitoring of serum potassium in the 1st month of concurrent therapy is recommended.

Drospirenone; Estradiol: (Minor) Drospirenone has antimineralocorticoid effects; the progestin may increase serum potassium. Other drugs that may have additive effects on serum potassium with drospirenone include chronic treatment with NSAIDs, and monitoring of serum potassium in the 1st month of concurrent therapy is recommended.

Drospirenone; Ethinyl Estradiol: (Minor) Drospirenone has antimineralocorticoid effects; the progestin may increase serum potassium. Other drugs that may have additive effects on serum potassium with drospirenone include chronic treatment with NSAIDs, and monitoring of serum potassium in the 1st month of concurrent therapy is recommended.

Drospirenone; Ethinyl Estradiol; Levomefolate: (Minor) Drospirenone has antimineralocorticoid effects; the progestin may increase serum potassium. Other drugs that may have additive effects on serum potassium with drospirenone include chronic treatment with NSAIDs, and monitoring of serum potassium in the 1st month of concurrent therapy is recommended.

Drotrecogin Alfa: (Moderate) Caution should be used when drotrecogin alfa is used with any other drugs that affect hemostasis, including NSAIDs. These patients are at increased risk of bleeding during drotrecogin alfa therapy.

Duloxetine: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by duloxetine due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Mmonitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding when duloxetine is coadministered with NSAIDs.

Edoxaban: (Major) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Edrophonium: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Efavirenz; Emtricitabine; Tenofovir: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment. (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Efavirenz; Lamivudine; Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment.

Eltrombopag: (Moderate) Eltrombopag is a UDP-glucuronyltransferase inhibitor. NSAIDs are a substrate of UDP-glucuronyltransferases. The significance or effect of this interaction is not known; however, elevated concentrations of the NSAID are possible. Monitor patients for adverse reactions if eltrombopag is administered with an NSAID.

Elvitegravir; Cobicistat; Emtricitabine; Tenofovir Alafenamide: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Elvitegravir; Cobicistat; Emtricitabine; Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment. (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Emtricitabine: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Emtricitabine; Rilpivirine; Tenofovir alafenamide: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Emtricitabine; Rilpivirine; Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment. (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Emtricitabine; Tenofovir alafenamide: (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Emtricitabine; Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment. (Moderate) Monitor for changes in serum creatinine and adverse reactions, such as lactic acidosis or hepatotoxicity if emtricitabine is administered in combination with nephrotoxic agents, such as high-dose nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Consider the potential for drug interaction prior to and during concurrent use of these medications. Both emtricitabine and NSAIDs are excreted via the kidneys by a combination of glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion. While no drug interactions due to competition for renal excretion have been observed, coadministration of these medications may increase concentrations of both drugs.

Enalapril, Enalaprilat: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Enalapril; Felodipine: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Enalapril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Enoxaparin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Entecavir: (Moderate) The manufacturer of entecavir recommends monitoring for adverse effects when coadministered with NSAIDs. Entecavir is primarily eliminated by the kidneys; NSAIDs can affect renal function. Concurrent administration may increase the serum concentrations of entecavir and adverse events.

Eplerenone: (Major) Monitor serum potassium and serum creatinine concentrations within 3 to 7 days of initiating coadministration of eplerenone and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and monitor blood pressure. The concomitant use of other potassium-sparing antihypertensives with NSAIDs has been shown to reduce the antihypertensive effect in some patients and result in severe hyperkalemia in patients with impaired renal function. Patients who develop hyperkalemia may continue eplerenone with proper dose adjustment; eplerenone dose reduction decreases potassium concentrations.

Epoprostenol: (Moderate) NSAIDs may decrease the effect of antihypertensive agents through various mechanisms, including renal and peripheral vasoactive pathways.

Eprosartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Eprosartan; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Eptifibatide: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Eribulin: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Erlotinib: (Moderate) Monitor for symptoms of gastrointestinal (GI) perforation (e.g., severe abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting) if coadministration of erlotinib with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is necessary. Permanently discontinue erlotinib in patients who develop GI perforation. The pooled incidence of GI perforation clinical trials of erlotinib ranged from 0.1% to 0.4%, including fatal cases. Patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs may be at increased risk of perforation.

Escitalopram: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Esmolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Esomeprazole; Naproxen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Estramustine: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Ethacrynic Acid: (Moderate) If a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDs concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDs have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Ethanol: (Major) Concomitant ingestion of ethanol with NSAIDs increases the risk of developing gastric irritation and GI mucosal bleeding. Ethanol is a mucosal irritant and NSAIDs decrease platelet aggregation. Routine ingestion of ethanol and NSAIDs can cause significant GI bleeding, which may or may not be overt. Even occasional concomitant use of NSAIDs and ethanol should be avoided. Chronic alcoholism is often associated with hypoprothrombinemia and this condition increases the risk of bleeding. Systemic exposure of NSAIDs that are primary substrates for CYP2C9, such as diclofenac, may be increased during use of ethanol, which is a dose-dependent inhibitor of CYP2C9. The effects of ethanol may also be substrate-dependent, since in vitro data have shown varying inhibitory effects on 2C9 substrates.The manufacturer of diclofenac; misoprostol recommends that the total daily dose of diclofenac not exceed 100 mg in patients receiving a CYP2C9 inhibitor. Patients should be warned regarding the potential for increased risk of GI bleeding if alcohol-containing beverages are taken concurrently with NSAIDs.

Ethiodized Oil: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Etodolac: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of etodolac with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Famotidine; Ibuprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Fenoldopam: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Fenoprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of fenoprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Flavocoxid, Flavocoxid; Citrated Zinc Bisglycinate: (Major) Flavocoxid exerts similar pharmacologic characteristics to other systemic NSAIDs. Additive pharmacodynamic effects, including a potential for additive adverse cardiac and GI effects, may be seen if flavocoxid is used with NSAIDs. In general, the concurrent use of flavocoxid and NSAIDs should be avoided.

Floxuridine: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of floxuridine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Fludarabine: (Moderate) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Fludrocortisone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Flunisolide: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Fluorouracil, 5-FU: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of fluorouracil, 5-FU, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Fluoxetine: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Fluoxetine; Olanzapine: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Flurbiprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of flurbiprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Fluticasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Fluticasone; Salmeterol: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Fluticasone; Umeclidinium; Vilanterol: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Fluticasone; Vilanterol: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Fluvoxamine: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Fondaparinux: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Food: (Moderate) Administering nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with marijuana may limit some of marijuana's pharmacologic activities. Certain actions of marijuana require prostaglandin-mediated processes to occur; NSAIDs may interfere with these processes thereby decreasing marijuana's effect. Coadministration of indomethacin with marijuana has been shown to significantly decrease euphoria, tachycardia, and the intraocular pressure lowering activity of marijuana.

Formoterol; Mometasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Foscarnet: (Minor) The risk of renal toxicity may be increased if foscarnet is used in conjuction with other nephrotoxic agents, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy.

Fosinopril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Fosinopril; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Furosemide: (Moderate) If a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDs concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDs have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Galantamine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Gallium Ga 68 Dotatate: (Major) Avoid use of mannitol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), if possible. If use together is necessary, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Concomitant administration of nephrotoxic drugs, such as NSAIDs, increases the risk of renal failure after administration of mannitol. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Ganciclovir: (Minor) Concurrent use of nephrotoxic agents, such as NSAIDs, with ganciclovir should be done cautiously to avoid additive nephrotoxicity. Monitor renal function carefully if concomitant therapy is required.

Garlic, Allium sativum: (Minor) Garlic, Allium sativum may produce clinically-significant antiplatelet effects; until more data are available, garlic should be used cautiously in patients receiving drugs with a known potential risk for bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Gentamicin: (Moderate) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as gentamicin.

Ginger, Zingiber officinale: (Minor) Patients receiving regular therapy with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) should use ginger with caution, due to a theoretical risk of bleeding resulting from additive pharmacology related to the COX enzymes. However, clinical documentation of interactions is lacking. Several pungent constituents of ginger (Zingiber officinale) are reported to inhibit arachidonic acid (AA) induced platelet activation in human whole blood. The constituent (8)-paradol is the most potent inhibitor of COX-1 and exhibits the greatest anti-platelet activity versus other gingerol analogues. The mechanism of ginger-associated platelet inhibition may be related to decreased COX-1/Thomboxane synthase enzymatic activity.

Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba: (Moderate) Ginkgo is reported to inhibit platelet aggregation and several case reports describe bleeding complications with Ginkgo biloba, with or without concomitant drug therapy. Ginkgo should be used cautiously in patients receiving drugs that inhibit platelet aggregation or pose a risk for bleeding, such as NSAIDs. A case of fatal intracerebral bleeding has been reported with the combination of Ginkgo and the NSAID ibuprofen. A 71 year-old male had been taking a concentrated Ginkgo biloba extract (Gingium, Germany) 40 mg PO twice daily for a few years; 4 weeks prior to his death, he had started taking ibuprofen (600 mg daily) for osteoarthritic hip pain. The man was found comatose and CT scan revealed a massive intracerebral bleed; no other causative factors were identified.

Glimepiride: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glimepiride; Pioglitazone: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glimepiride; Rosiglitazone: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glipizide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glipizide; Metformin: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glyburide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Glyburide; Metformin: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Gold: (Moderate) Due to the inhibition of renal prostaglandins by NSAIDs, concurrent use with other nephrotoxic agents, such as gold compounds, may lead to additive nephrotoxicity. Monitor renal function carefully during concurrent therapy.

Guanabenz: (Moderate) NSAIDs may decrease the effect of antihypertensive agents through various mechanisms, including renal and peripheral vasoactive pathways.

Guanfacine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may decrease the effect of antihypertensive agents through various mechanisms, including renal and peripheral vasoactive pathways.

Heparin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Hyaluronidase, Recombinant; Immune Globulin: (Moderate) Immune Globulin (IG) products have been reported to be associated with renal dysfunction, acute renal failure, osmotic nephrosis, and death. Patients predisposed to acute renal failure include patients receiving known nephrotoxic drugs like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and salicylates. Coadminister IG products at the minimum concentration available and the minimum rate of infusion practicable. Also, closely monitor renal function.

Hydralazine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydralazine; Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydralazine; Isosorbide Dinitrate, ISDN: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Irbesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Lisinopril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Losartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Methyldopa: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Metoprolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Moexipril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Olmesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Propranolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Quinapril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Spironolactone: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Telmisartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Triamterene: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Hydrochlorothiazide, HCTZ; Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Hydrocodone; Ibuprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Hydrocortisone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Hyoscyamine; Methenamine; Methylene Blue; Phenyl Salicylate; Sodium Biphosphate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Ibritumomab Tiuxetan: (Major) During and after therapy, avoid the concomitant use of Yttrium (Y)-90 ibrutumomab tiuxetan with drugs that interfere with platelet function such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); the risk of bleeding may be increased. If coadministration with NSAIDs is necessary, monitor platelet counts more frequently for evidence of thrombocytopenia.

Ibuprofen lysine: (Major) Because ibuprofen lysine exerts similar pharmacologic characteristics to other systemic NSAIDs, including COX-2 inhibitors, additive pharmacodynamic effects, including a potential increase for additive adverse GI effects, may be seen if ibuprofen lysine is used with other NSAIDs. In general, concurrent use of ibuprofen lysine and another NSAID should be avoided.

Ibuprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Ibuprofen; Oxycodone: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Ibuprofen; Pseudoephedrine: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ibuprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Iloprost: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Imatinib: (Moderate) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Immune Globulin IV, IVIG, IGIV: (Moderate) Immune Globulin (IG) products have been reported to be associated with renal dysfunction, acute renal failure, osmotic nephrosis, and death. Patients predisposed to acute renal failure include patients receiving known nephrotoxic drugs like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and salicylates. Coadminister IG products at the minimum concentration available and the minimum rate of infusion practicable. Also, closely monitor renal function.

Indapamide: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Indomethacin: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of indomethacin with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Inotersen: (Moderate) Use caution with concomitant use of inotersen and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) due to the risk of glomerulonephritis and nephrotoxicity as well as the potential risk of bleeding from thrombocytopenia. Consider discontinuation of NSAIDs in a patient taking inotersen with a platelet count of less than 50,000 per microliter.

Interferon Alfa-2a: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Interferon Alfa-2b: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Interferon Alfa-2b; Ribavirin: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Iodipamide Meglumine: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Iodixanol: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Iohexol: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Ionic Contrast Media: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Iopamidol: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Iopromide: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Ioversol: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Ioxaglate Meglumine; Ioxaglate Sodium: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Irbesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Isosulfan Blue: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Ixabepilone: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Kanamycin: (Moderate) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as kanamycin.

Ketoprofen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of ketoprofen with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Ketorolac: (Contraindicated) Concomitant use of ketorolac with another NSAID is contraindicated. Increased adverse gastrointestinal effects are possible if ketorolac is used with other systemic nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including COX-2 inhibitors.

Labetalol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Lamivudine; Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment.

Lansoprazole; Naproxen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Leflunomide: (Moderate) In vitro studies indicate that the M1 metabolite of leflunomide inhibits cytochrome P450 2C9, the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of many NSAIDs. Leflunomide altered protein binding and thus, increased the free fraction of ibuprofen by 13% to 50%. The clinical significance of the interactions with NSAIDs is unknown. There was extensive concomitant use of NSAIDs in phase III clinical studies of leflunomide in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and no clinical differential effects were observed. However, because some NSAIDs have been reported to cause hepatotoxic effects, some caution may be warranted in their use with leflunomide.

Lepirudin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Levobetaxolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Levobunolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Levomilnacipran: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by SNRIs such as levomilnacipran due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding in patients taking levomilnacipran and NSAIDs.

Lisinopril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Lithium: (Moderate) Lithium levels should be monitored when patients initiate or discontinue nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. In some cases, lithium toxicity has resulted from interactions between an NSAID and lithium. Indomethacin and piroxicam have been reported to significantly increase steady-state plasma lithium concentrations. There is also evidence that other NSAIDs, including the selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors, have the same effect. In a study conducted in healthy subjects, mean steady-state lithium plasma levels increased approximately 17% in subjects receiving lithium 450 twice daily with celecoxib 200 mg twice daily as compared to subjects receiving lithium alone. It is thought that prostaglandins are involved in the renal clearance of lithium and that NSAIDs interfere with lithium excretion. Typically, increased lithium levels develop over 5 to 10 days after adding a NSAID and return to pretreatment levels within 7 days of stopping the NSAID.

Lomustine, CCNU: (Major) Due to the bone marrow suppressive and thrombocytopenic effects of lomustine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Losartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Macimorelin: (Major) Avoid use of macimorelin with drugs that directly affect pituitary growth hormone secretion, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Healthcare providers are advised to discontinue NSAID therapy and observe a sufficient washout period before administering macimorelin. Use of these medications together may impact the accuracy of the macimorelin growth hormone test.

Magnesium Salicylate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Magnesium Salts: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sulfate salt bowel preparation in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Magnesium Sulfate; Potassium Sulfate; Sodium Sulfate: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sulfate salt bowel preparation in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Mannitol: (Major) Avoid use of mannitol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), if possible. If use together is necessary, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Concomitant administration of nephrotoxic drugs, such as NSAIDs, increases the risk of renal failure after administration of mannitol. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Mecamylamine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Mechlorethamine, Nitrogen Mustard: (Major) Mechlorethamine, nitrogen mustard is highly toxic and is associated with lymphocytopenia, granulocytopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of mechlorethamine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Meclofenamate Sodium: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of meclofenamate sodium with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Mefenamic Acid: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of mefenamic acid with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Meloxicam: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of meloxicam with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Mesalamine, 5-ASA: (Minor) The concurrent use of mesalamine with known nephrotoxic agents such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of nephrotoxicity.

Methotrexate: (Major) In general, NSAID therapy can decrease the clearance of methotrexate, resulting in elevated and prolonged serum methotrexate levels. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) should not be administered prior to, concomitantly, or following intermediate or high doses of methotrexate. Concomitant administration of NSAIDs with high dose methotrexate therapy has been reported to elevate and prolong serum concentrations of methotrexate resulting in deaths from severe hematologic and gastrointestinal toxicity. Caution should be used when NSAIDs are administered concurrently with lower doses of methotrexate. In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, methotrexate has been given concurrently with NSAIDs without apparent problems. It should be noted that the doses of methotrexate used in rheumatoid arthritis are lower than those used in psoriasis or malignant disease; higher methotrexate doses may lead to unexpected toxicity in combination with NSAIDs. Concurrent use of NSAIDs may increase the risk of GI bleeding in patients with methotrexate-induced myelosuppression or mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection.

Methoxsalen: (Minor) Preclinical data suggest agents that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis such as nabumetone could decrease the efficacy of photosensitizing agents used in photodynamic therapy. Avoidance of nabumetone before and during photodynamic therapy may be advisable.

Methyldopa: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Methylprednisolone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Methylsulfonylmethane, MSM: (Moderate) Patients taking methylsulfonylmethane, MSM have reported increased bruising or blood in the stool. These effects have not been confirmed in published medical literature or during clinical studies. Use methylsulfonylmethane, MSM with caution in patients who are taking drugs with the potential for additive bleeding, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). During an available, published clinical trials in patients with osteoarthritis, patients with bleeding disorders or using anticoagulants or platelet inhibiting drugs were excluded from enrollment. Patients who choose to consume methylsulfonylmethane, MSM while receiving NSAIDs should be observed for potential bleeding.

Metoprolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Mifepristone: (Moderate) Mifepristone significantly increased exposure of drugs metabolized by CYP2C8/2C9 in interaction studies. Therefore, when mifepristone is used chronically, as in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome, use caution with coadministered CYP2C8/2C9 substrates, including the NSAIDs. Use the lowest doses of the substrate and patients should be monitored closely for adverse reactions.

Milnacipran: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by milnacipran due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding in patients taking milnacipran and NSAIDs.

Minoxidil: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Mitoxantrone: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of mitoxantrone, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Moexipril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Mometasone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Nadolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Naproxen: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Naproxen; Pseudoephedrine: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Naproxen; Sumatriptan: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Nebivolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Nebivolol; Valsartan: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease. (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Nelarabine: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of nelarabine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Neomycin: (Minor) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive NSAIDs concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as aminoglycosides.

Neostigmine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Nitroprusside: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Non-Ionic Contrast Media: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when given to patients receiving a contrast agents. When possible, withhold NSAID therapy during administration of a contrast agent.

Olmesartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Omacetaxine: (Major) Avoid the concomitant use of omacetaxine and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) when the platelet count is less than 50,000 cells/microliter due to an increased risk of bleeding.

Oxaprozin: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Paclitaxel: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of paclitaxel, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Paroxetine: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Pegaspargase: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of pegaspargase, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Penbutolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Pentamidine: (Major) Avoid concurrent or sequential use of pentamidine with nabumetone. Coadministration may increase the risk for drug-induced nephrotoxicity. Closely monitor renal function if coadministration is unavoidable.

Pentosan: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Pentostatin: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of pentostatin, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Perindopril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Perindopril; Amlodipine: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Phenoxybenzamine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Phentermine; Topiramate: (Moderate) Concurrent use of topiramate and drugs that affect platelet function such as NSAIDs may increase the risk of bleeding. In a pooled analysis of placebo-controlled trials, bleeding was more frequently reported in patients receiving topiramate (4.5%) compared to placebo (2 to 3%). In those with severe bleeding events, patients were often taking drugs that cause thrombocytopenia or affect platelet function or coagulation.

Phentolamine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Photosensitizing agents (topical): (Moderate) Agents that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), could decrease the efficacy of photosensitizing agents used in photodynamic therapy. Avoidance of NSAIDs before and during photodynamic therapy may be advisable.

Physostigmine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Pindolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Piroxicam: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Platelet Inhibitors: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Pneumococcal Vaccine, Polyvalent: (Moderate) Concomitant administration of antipyretics, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), may decrease an individual's immunological response to the pneumococcal vaccine. A post-marketing study conducted in Poland using a non-US vaccination schedule (2, 3, 4, and 12 months of age) evaluated the impact of prophylactic oral acetaminophen on antibody responses to Prevnar 13. Data show that acetaminophen, given at the time of vaccination and then dosed at 6 to 8 hour intervals for 3 doses on a scheduled basis, reduced the antibody response to some serotypes after the third dose of Prevnar 13 when compared to the antibody responses of infants who only received antipyretics 'as needed' for treatment. However, reduced antibody responses were not observed after the fourth dose of Prevnar 13 with prophylactic acetaminophen.

Polyethylene Glycol; Electrolytes: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sulfate salt bowel preparation in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Polyethylene Glycol; Electrolytes; Ascorbic Acid: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sulfate salt bowel preparation in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Polymyxin B: (Major) The chronic coadministration of systemic polymyxins may increase the risk of developing nephrotoxicity, even in patients who have normal renal function. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when used concurrently. Monitor patients for changes in renal function if these drugs are coadministered. Since Polymyxin B is eliminated by the kidney, coadministration with other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may theoretically increase serum concentrations of either drug.

Polymyxins: (Major) The administration of colistimethate sodium may increase the risk of developing nephrotoxicity, even in patients who have normal renal function. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk for nephrotoxicity when used concurrently. Monitor patients for changes in renal function if these drugs are coadministered. Since colistimethate sodium is eliminated by the kidney, coadministration with other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, including nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may theoretically increase serum concentrations of either drug.

Potassium: (Moderate) Closely monitor serum potassium in patients receiving potassium supplements and concomitant nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs may cause potassium retention by reducing renal synthesis of prostaglandin E and impairing the renin-angiotensin system.

Pralatrexate: (Major) Renal elimination accounts for approximately 34% of the overall clearance of pralatrexate. Concomitant administration of drugs that undergo substantial renal clearance, such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may result in delayed clearance of pralatrexate.

Prasugrel: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Prazosin: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Prednisolone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Prednisone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Probenecid: (Major) The effects of probenecid on the elimination of nabumetone has not been studied, but probenecid decreases the elimination of other NSAIDs such as naproxen, potentially increasing the effectiveness and/or toxicity. Caution should be exercised when administering probenecid with nabumetone; nabumetone and naproxen are chemically similar, and probenecid has been shown to affect the pharmacokinetics of naproxen.

Procarbazine: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of procarbazine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Propranolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Pyridostigmine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Quinapril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Quinolones: (Moderate) Use quinolones and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concomitantly with caution due to potential increased risk of CNS stimulation and convulsive seizures. NSAIDs in combination with very high doses of quinolones have been shown to provoke convulsions in preclinical studies and postmarketing.

Ramipril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Reserpine: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Reteplase, r-PA: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Rivaroxaban: (Major) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Rivastigmine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Romidepsin: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Sacubitril; Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Salicylates: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Salsalate: (Major) The concurrent use of aspirin with other NSAIDs should be avoided because this may increase bleeding or lead to decreased renal function. The use of salicylates together with NSAIDs can also lead to additive GI toxicity.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Sertraline: (Moderate) The combined use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of bleeding, including an upper GI bleed. SSRIs may inhibit serotonin uptake by platelets, augmenting the antiplatelet effects of NSAIDs. Additionally, NSAIDs impair the gastric mucosa defenses by inhibiting prostaglandin formation. A cohort study in more than 26,000 patients found that SSRI use alone increased the risk for serious GI bleed by 3.6-fold; when an SSRI was combined with NSAIDs, the risk was increased by more than 12.2-fold. The absolute risk of GI bleed from concomitant therapy with NSAIDs and a SSRI was low (17/4107 patients).

Sodium Phosphate Monobasic Monohydrate; Sodium Phosphate Dibasic Anhydrous: (Moderate) Concomitant use of medicines with potential to alter renal perfusion or function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of acute phosphate nephropathy in patients taking sodium phosphate monobasic monohydrate; sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous.

Sodium picosulfate; Magnesium oxide; Anhydrous citric acid: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sodium picosulfate; magnesium oxide; anhydrous citric acid in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Sodium Sulfate; Magnesium Sulfate; Potassium Chloride: (Moderate) Use caution when prescribing sulfate salt bowel preparation in patients taking concomitant medications that may affect renal function such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Sotalol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Spironolactone: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Streptokinase: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Streptomycin: (Moderate) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as streptomycin.

Streptozocin: (Major) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Sulfinpyrazone: (Moderate) Sulfinpyrazone is an inhibitor of CYP2C9 and may lead to increased plasma levels of NSAIDs. During concurrent therapy, monitor for potential NSAID-induced toxicity, such as GI irritation or bleeding.

Sulfonylureas: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Sulindac: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Tacrine: (Moderate) NSAIDs may cause additive pharmacodynamic GI effects with cholinesterase inhibitors, leading to gastrointestinal intolerance. Patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs should be monitored closely for symptoms of active or occult gastrointestinal bleeding. While NSAIDs appear to suppress microglial activity, which in turn may slow inflammatory neurodegenerative processes important for the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), there are no clinical data at this time to suggest that NSAIDs alone or as combined therapy with AD agents result in synergistic effects in AD.

Tacrolimus: (Moderate) Monitor patients for signs of worsening renal function during coadministration of tacrolimus and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Coadministration may increase the risk for drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

Telavancin: (Minor) Concurrent or sequential use of telavancin with drugs that inhibit renal prostaglandins such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) may lead to additive nephrotoxicity. Closely monitor renal function and adjust telavancin doses based on calculated creatinine clearance.

Telbivudine: (Moderate) Drugs that alter renal function such as NSAIDs may alter telbivudine plasma concentrations because telbivudine is eliminated primarily by renal excretion. Monitor renal function before and during telbivudine treatment.

Telmisartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Temozolomide: (Major) Myelosuppression, primarily neutropenia and thrombocytopenia, is the dose-limiting toxicity of temozolomide. Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of temozolomide, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, ASA, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Tenecteplase: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Teniposide: (Major) Dose-limiting bone marrow suppression is the most significant toxicity associated with teniposide, and may include thrombocytopenia. An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding. Salicylates also displace protein-bound teniposide in fresh human serum to a small but significant extent. Because of the extremely high binding of teniposide to plasma proteins, these small decreases in binding could cause substantial increases in plasma free drug concentrations that could result in potentiation of teniposide toxicity, including bone marrow suppression.

Tenofovir Alafenamide: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir-containing medications concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine clearance, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment.

Tenofovir, PMPA: (Moderate) Avoid administering tenofovir, PMPA concurrently with or recently after a nephrotoxic agent, such as high-dose or multiple nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Cases of acute renal failure, some requiring hospitalization and renal replacement therapy, have been reported after high-dose or multiple NSAIDs were initiated in patients who appeared stable on tenofovir. Consider alternatives to NSAIDs in patients at risk for renal dysfunction. If these drugs must be coadministered, carefully monitor the estimated creatinine creatinine, serum phosphorus, urine glucose, and urine protein prior to, and periodically during, treatment.

Terazosin: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Thiazide diuretics: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Thioguanine, 6-TG: (Major) Due to the thrombocytopenic effects of thioguanine, an additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant anticoagulants, NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, including aspirin, strontium-89 chloride, and thrombolytic agents. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Thrombolytic Agents: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Ticagrelor: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Ticlopidine: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Timolol: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Tinzaparin: (Moderate) An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving anticoagulants in combination with other agents known to increase the risk of bleeding such as nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor clinical and laboratory response closely during concurrent use.

Tirofiban: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Tobacco: (Moderate) Concomitant use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with tobacco smoking may enhance the risk of gastrointestinal (GI) side effects. Tobacco smoking may independently increase the risk of peptic ulcer and GI bleeding, and thus may increase the risk with NSAID usage. Patients using tobacco and NSAIDs concurrently should be monitored closely for GI adverse reactions.

Tobramycin: (Moderate) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, such as tobramycin.

Tolazamide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Tolbutamide: (Moderate) NSAIDs may enhance hypoglycemia in diabetic patients via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which indirectly increases insulin secretion. If NSAIDs are administered or discontinued in patients receiving oral antidiabetic agents, patients should be monitored for hypoglycemia or loss of blood glucose control. No clinically significant interaction between sulindac at daily doses of 400 mg and oral hypoglycemic agents has been observed. Sulindac, its sulfide metabolite, and sulfonylureas are highly bound to protein. Sulindac could displace the sulfonylureas, altering hypoglycemic activity. Careful patient monitoring is recommended to ensure that no change in their diabetes medicine dosage is required. A sulfonylurea dose adjustment may be needed, especially if sulindac doses greater than 400 mg daily are used or if the drug combination is used in patients with renal impairment or other metabolic defects that might increase sulindac blood concentrations.

Tolmetin: (Major) Avoid concomitant use of nabumetone with any other NSAID, including COX-2 inhibitors, due to the risk of additive serious NSAID toxicities including but not limited to GI bleeding, GI perforation, or peptic ulcers.

Topiramate: (Moderate) Concurrent use of topiramate and drugs that affect platelet function such as NSAIDs may increase the risk of bleeding. In a pooled analysis of placebo-controlled trials, bleeding was more frequently reported in patients receiving topiramate (4.5%) compared to placebo (2 to 3%). In those with severe bleeding events, patients were often taking drugs that cause thrombocytopenia or affect platelet function or coagulation.

Torsemide: (Moderate) If a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDs concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. NSAIDs may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDs have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain.

Tositumomab: (Major) The tositumomab therapeutic regimen frequently causes severe and prolonged thrombocytopenia. The potential benefits of medications that interfere with platelet function and/or anticoagulation should be weighed against the potential increased risk of bleeding and hemorrhage. An additive risk of bleeding may be seen in patients receiving concomitant NSAIDs. In addition, large doses of salicylates (>= 3-4 g/day) can cause hypoprothrombinemia, an additional risk factor for bleeding.

Trandolapril: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Trandolapril; Verapamil: (Moderate) In the low-renin or volume-dependent hypertensive patient, prostaglandins play an important role in the hypotensive effects of ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may attenuate the antihypertensive effects of ACE inhibitors by inhibiting the synthesis of vasodilatory prostaglandins. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, the coadministration of ACE inhibitors may result in a further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible. Therefore, blood pressure and renal function should be monitored closely when an NSAID is administered to a patient taking an ACE inhibitor. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. The potential clinical effects of selective or preferential COX-2 inhibitors are not known. Mean arterial blood pressure increased 3 mmHg in patients receiving ACE inhibitor (benazepril 10 to 40 mg daily for 4 weeks) with rofecoxib 25 mg once daily compared to the ACE inhibitor regimen alone.

Trazodone: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by trazodone due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Patients should be instructed to monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding while taking trazodone concurrently with medications that impair platelet function and to promptly report any bleeding events to the practitioner.

Treprostinil: (Moderate) NSAIDs may decrease the effect of antihypertensive agents through various mechanisms, including renal and peripheral vasoactive pathways.

Tretinoin, ATRA: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Triamcinolone: (Moderate) Although some patients may need to be given corticosteroids and NSAIDs concomitantly, which can be done successfully for short periods of time without sequelae, prolonged concomitant administration should be avoided. Concomitant use of corticosteroids appears to increase the risk of adverse GI events due to NSAIDs. Corticosteroids can have profound effects on sodium-potassium balance; NSAIDs also can affect sodium and fluid balance. Monitor serum potassium concentrations; potassium supplementation may be necessary. In addition, NSAIDs may mask fever, pain, swelling and other signs and symptoms of an infection; use NSAIDs with caution in patients receiving immunosuppressant dosages of corticosteroids. The Beers criteria recommends that this drug combination be avoided in older adults; if coadministration cannot be avoided, provide gastrointestinal protection.

Triamterene: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Urea: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce the natriuretic effect of diuretics in some patients. NSAIDS have been associated with an inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which may result in reduced renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and increases in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients taking diuretics and NSAIDS concurrently are at higher risk of developing renal insufficiency. If an NSAID and a diuretic are used concurrently, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of decreased renal function and diuretic efficacy.

Urokinase: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, prolong bleeding time; these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased when administered to patients receiving thrombolytic agents. Patients receiving these drugs concurrently should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Valacyclovir: (Moderate) Monitor patients for signs of worsening renal function during coadministration of valacyclovir and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Coadministration may increase the risk for drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

Valganciclovir: (Minor) Concurrent use of nephrotoxic agents, such as NSAIDs, with valganciclovir should be done cautiously to avoid additive nephrotoxicity.

Valsartan: (Moderate) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (including selective COX-2 inhibitors) may alter the response to Angiotensin II receptor blockers due to inhibition of vasodilatory prostaglandins. Among NSAIDs, indomethacin, naproxen, and piroxicam may have the greatest pressor effect, while the effects of sulindac and nabumetone may be significantly less. In patients who are elderly, volume-depleted (including those on diuretic therapy), or with compromised renal function who are being treated with NSAIDs, coadministration of angiotensin II receptor antagonists may result in further deterioration of renal function, including acute renal failure. These effects are usually reversible.

Vancomycin: (Minor) It is possible that additive nephrotoxicity may occur in patients who receive NSAIDs concurrently with other nephrotoxic agents, including vancomycin.

Vasodilators: (Moderate) If nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and an antihypertensive drug are concurrently used, carefully monitor the patient for signs and symptoms of renal insufficiency and blood pressure control. Doses of antihypertensive medications may require adjustment in patients receiving concurrent NSAIDs. NSAIDs, to varying degrees, have been associated with an elevation in blood pressure. This effect is most significant in patients receiving concurrent antihypertensive agents and long-term NSAID therapy. NSAIDs cause a dose-dependent reduction in prostaglandin formation, which may result in a reduction in renal blood flow leading to renal insufficiency and an increase in blood pressure that are often accompanied by peripheral edema and weight gain. Patients who rely upon renal prostaglandins to maintain renal perfusion may have acute renal blood flow reduction with NSAID usage. Elderly patients may be at increased risk of adverse effects from combined long-term NSAID therapy and antihypertensive agents, especially diuretics, due to age-related decreases in renal function and an increased risk of stroke and coronary artery disease.

Vemurafenib: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia. Notable interactions may occur with myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents, antithymocyte globulin and strontium-89 chloride. However, nabumetone may be associated with less risk than other NSAIDs due to its relative minimal platelet inhibitory effects and gastric ulceration or hemorrhagic potential. Patients receiving nabumetone concurrently with antineoplastic agents, antithymocyte globulin, or strontium-89 chloride should be monitored closely for bleeding.

Venlafaxine: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by venlafaxine due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Monitor patients for signs and symptoms of bleeding when coadministering venlafaxine with NSAIDs.

Verteporfin: (Moderate) Use caution if coadministration of verteporfin with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is necessary due to the risk of decreased verteporfin efficacy. Oxaprozin may additionally worsen photosensitivity. Verteporfin is a light-activated drug. Once activated, local damage to neovascular endothelium results in a release of procoagulant and vasoactive factors resulting in platelet aggregation, fibrin clot formation, and vasoconstriction. Concomitant use of drugs that decrease platelet aggregation like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs could decrease the efficacy of verteporfin therapy.

Vilazodone: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by vilazodone due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Patients should be instructed to monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding while taking vilazodone concurrently with NSAIDs and to promptly report any bleeding events to the practitioner.

Vincristine Liposomal: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Vincristine: (Minor) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs, such as nabumetone, are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Voclosporin: (Moderate) Concomitant use of voclosporin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may result in additive nephrotoxicity. Monitor for renal toxicity if concomitant use is required.

Vorapaxar: (Moderate) NSAIDs can cause GI bleeding, inhibit platelet aggregation, and prolong bleeding time. If NSAIDs are administered with platelet inhibitors, these pharmacodynamic effects may be increased. The manufacturer of clopidogrel advises that caution be used when used in combination with NSAIDs as an increase in occult GI blood loss occurred when clopidogrel was used concomitantly with naproxen

Voriconazole: (Moderate) Voriconazole is a substrate and inhibitor of cytochrome P450 isoenzyme 2C9, and may lead to increased plasma levels of some NSAIDs, such as nabumetone. The clinical significance of this potential interaction is unknown. If voriconazole is administered concurrently with nabumetone, monitor for NSAID-related side-effects, such as fluid retention or GI irritation, and adjust the dose of the NSAID, if needed.

Vorinostat: (Major) An increased risk of bleeding may occur when NSAIDs are used with agents that cause clinically significant thrombocytopenia, such as myelosuppressive antineoplastic agents. Monitor closely for bleeding.

Vortioxetine: (Moderate) Platelet aggregation may be impaired by vortioxetine due to platelet serotonin depletion, possibly increasing the risk of a bleeding complication (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding, ecchymoses, epistaxis, hematomas, petechiae, hemorrhage) in patients receiving nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Bleeding events related to drugs that inhibit serotonin reuptake have ranged from ecchymosis to life-threatening hemorrhages. Patients should be instructed to monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding while taking vortioxetine concurrently with medications which impair platelet function and to promptly report any bleeding events to the practitioner.

Warfarin: (Moderate) Monitor patients for signs or symptoms of bleeding during concurrent use of warfarin and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).To minimize the potential for GI bleeding, use the lowest effective NSAID dose for the shortest possible duration. If signs or symptoms of bleeding occur, promptly evaluate and treat. Systemic hematological effects may also occur with the use of topical NSAIDs. NSAIDs inhibit platelet aggregation and may prolong bleeding time in some patients.

Nabumetone is a prodrug that requires conversion to an active metabolite (6-MNA) for its pharmacologic activity. 6-MNA competitively inhibits both cyclooxygenase (COX) isoenzymes, COX-1 and COX-2, by blocking arachidonate binding resulting in analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory pharmacologic effects. The enzymes COX-1 and COX-2 catalyze the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin G2 (PGG2), the first step of the synthesis prostaglandins and thromboxanes that are involved in rapid physiological responses. COX isoenzymes are also responsible for a peroxidase reaction, which is not affected by NSAIDs. In addition, NSAIDs do not suppress leukotriene synthesis by lipoxygenase pathways. COX-1 is constitutively expressed in almost all tissues, while COX-2 appears to only be constitutively expressed in the brain, kidney, bones, reproductive organs, and some neoplasms (e.g., colon and prostate cancers). COX-1 is responsible for prostaglandin synthesis in response to stimulation by circulating hormones, as well as maintenance of normal renal function, gastric mucosal integrity, and hemostasis. However, COX-2 is inducible in many cells in response to certain mediators of inflammation (e.g., interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor, lipopolysaccharide, mitogens, and reactive oxygen intermediates).
-Anti-inflammatory Activity: The anti-inflammatory mechanism of nabumetone is due to decreased prostaglandin synthesis via inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 by the 6-MNA metabolite. It appears that the anti-inflammatory effects may be primarily due to inhibition of the COX-2 isoenzyme. However, COX-1 is expressed at some sites of inflammation. COX-1 is expressed in the joints of rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis patients, especially the synovial lining, and it is the primary enzyme of prostaglandin synthesis in human bursitis. Laboratory cell assays have shown that 6-MNA has preferential and potent activity on the COX-2 isoenzyme, but 6-MNA does not act selectively clinically. Some inhibition of the COX-1 isoenzyme, found in gastric and renal tissues, also occurs.
-Analgesic Activity: Nabumetone is effective in cases where inflammation has caused sensitivity of pain receptors (hyperalgesia). It appears prostaglandins, specifically prostaglandins E and F, are responsible for sensitizing the pain receptors; therefore, nabumetone has an indirect analgesic effect by inhibiting the production of further prostaglandins and does not directly affect hyperalgesia or the pain threshold.
-Antipyretic Activity: Nabumetone promotes a return to a normal body temperature set point in the hypothalamus by suppressing the synthesis of prostaglandins, specifically PGE2, in circumventricular organs in and near the hypothalamus. Nabumetone may mask fever in some patients, especially with high or chronic dosing.
-GI Effects: Gastrointestinal side effects of nabumetone are primarily contributed to COX-1 inhibition; however, potential role of COX-2 inhibition in the GI tract has not been fully elucidated.
-Platelet Effects: The inhibition of platelet aggregation seen with nabumetone is due to dose-dependent inhibition of COX-1 in platelets leading to decreased levels of platelet thromboxane A2 and an increase in bleeding time (see Adverse Reactions). The inhibition of platelet aggregation is reversible within 24 hours of discontinuation of nabumetone. This differs from aspirin, which irreversibly binds to COX-1 in platelets inhibiting this enzyme for the life of the cell.
-Renal Effects: In the kidney, prostaglandins, produced by both COX-1 and COX-2, are important regulators of sodium and water reabsorption through PGE2 and of renal function and hemodynamics via PGI2 in response to vasoconstrictive factors (e.g., endothelin-1, a factor that increases peripheral vascular resistance) and through effects on the renin-angiotensin system. In conditions where renal blood flow is dependent upon prostaglandin synthesis, administration of NSAIDs can result in significant decreases in renal blood flow leading to acute renal failure. In addition, alterations in sodium and water reabsorption may worsen in increased blood pressure, which can be significant in selected individuals.
-Cardiovascular Effects: Selective inhibition of COX-2 will inhibit the production of PGI2 but not of thromboxane A2, which is produced by COX-1. Thromboxane A2 causes platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction, and vascular proliferation whereas PGI2 inhibits platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle contraction and proliferation, leukocyte endothelial cell interactions, and cholesteryl ester hydrolysis. As PGI2 inhibits platelet aggregation, prevention of its production in the presence of an inducer of platelet aggregation (thromboxane A2) may create an imbalance favoring a pro-thrombotic state (see Adverse Effects). Also, inhibition of PGI2 could lead to sodium and water retention, which may increase blood pressure or worsen heart failure or other cardiovascular morbidity (see Renal Effects). The presence of the thromboxane metabolite, 2,3-dinor thromboxane B2, in urine reflects platelet activation, and platelet activation facilitates atherogenesis. The amount of thromboxane metabolite excretion was higher in male as compared with female mice deficient in LDL receptors. Interestingly, excretion of the thromboxane metabolite by female mice deficient in both LDL and PGI2 receptors exceeded the amount excreted by male mice deficient in both receptors. Thus, in female mice, PGI2 decreases platelet activation. Furthermore, PGI2 appears to reduce oxidative stress only in female mice by serving as an antioxidant. In female mice deficient in both LDL and PGI2 receptors, lipid peroxidation was increased as compared with female mice deficient only in LDL receptors. Male mice deficient in both receptors did not have further lipid peroxidation as compared with male mice deficient only in LDL receptors. In vitro, estrogen has been shown to increase the expression of COX-2 in vascular tissues and to augment PGI2 production. Despite the differences between men and women in regard to age-dependent increases in cardiovascular disease, the mechanisms of atheroprotection in women before the menopause are largely unknown. In mice, estrogen, by acting on estrogen receptor subtype alpha, upregulates prostacyclin (PGI2) production by COX-2 activation.

Nabumetone is administered orally. Nabumetone is not detectable in the plasma due to rapid hepatic biotransformation to the active metabolite, 6-MNA. Approximately 35% of a nabumetone dose is converted to 6-MNA and most of the remainder to unidentified metabolites. 6-MNA is more than 99% bound to plasma protein. Substantial concentrations of 6-MNA are attained in the synovial fluid. 6-MNA is extensively metabolized by the liver through oxidation and glucuronidation to inactive metabolites that are excreted in the urine. Less than 1% of 6-MNA is excreted in the urine unchanged. 6-MNA has an elimination half-life of approximately 24 hours. Primary excretion is through urine (80%); about 9% is eliminated in the feces.


-Route-Specific Pharmacokinetics
Oral Route
Oral doses of nabumetone are well absorbed from the GI tract. If taken with food, the rate of drug absorption and peak concentrations of the active metabolite, 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid (6-MNA), are increased by about one-third, but the extent of conversion of nabumetone to (6-MNA) is not affected. Nabumetone has no enterohepatic recirculation.


-Special Populations
Hepatic Impairment
Due to extensive hepatic metabolism, nabumetone should be used with caution in patients with hepatic dysfunction. Data are limited, but hepatic function is necessary for conversion of nabumetone to 6-MNA to inactive metabolites.

Renal Impairment
Dosage reductions of nabumetone are needed for patients with an estimated creatinine clearance below 50 ml/minute (see Dosage). In patients with a CrCl between 30 and 49 ml/minute, both the elimination half-life and the unbound plasma concentrations of the active metabolite, 6-MNA, are increased about 50% as compared with values obtained from patients with higher CrCl. Furthermore, the renal clearance of 6-MNA is decreased by about a third. Due to extensive plasma protein binding, 6-MNA is not dialyzable. In patients undergoing hemodialysis, steady-state plasma concentrations of 6-MNA were similar to those observed in healthy subjects.

Pediatrics
Nabumetone has not been studied in pediatric patients.

Elderly
The elimination half-life of nabumetone is prolonged in elderly patients (29.8 +/- 8.1 hours), but dosage adjustments generally are not needed.